^7 ^'^■'\- WaU^y ^r vAi'^i' W.hM m "^" ■''^»f^r^^.QjB SJi '^Ai ^^^»:'.W^^ '^^A^^^'^. 2^«^ GifMMW& .A *•,'>/: THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. SECOND S£EI£S. VOLUME THE THIED. PEACTICE WITH SCIENCE. LONDON JOHN MUKKAY, ALBEMAELE STREET. 1867. These experments, it is true, are kot easy; still they are in the power of every thinking husbandman. he who accomplishes but one, of however limited application, and takes care to report it faithfully, advances the science, and, consequently, the practice op agriculture, and acquires thereby a right to the gratitude of his fellows, and of those who come after. to make many such is beyond the power op most individuals, and cannot be expected. the first cake of all societies foriied for the improvement op our science should be to prepare the forms of sdch experiments, and to distrrbute the execution of these among their members. Von Thaer, Principles of Agriculture. LONDON: PRIKTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREF.T, AND CHARING CROSS. CONTENTS OF YOL. III. Second Seeies. Statistics : — tag3 Vital Statistics for the year 1866 Meteorolofjy for the six months ending December 31, 1866 .. n Price of Provisions — Pauperism ditto .. vi Emigration for the six months ending December 31, 1866 .. vi Imports of Corn, &c. ditto ditto ..vii, viii British Wheat sold, and Average Prices viii, ix Statute Acres under Crops, Grass, &c.; Number of Cattle and Sheep ^^ Vital Statistics for the six months ending June 30, 1867 .. xi Increase of Population ; Emigration xii Meteorology ^^^^ Food, Prices — Importations of Grain s.vi Sales of British Wheat x.viii Prices of Corn, &c xviii Pauperism ^^ RETICLE ,,..., o- 1 ^^^^ I.— The Use, to the Farmer, of a Magnifymg-glass or Simple Microscope. By W. Kencely Bridgman, L.D.S., E.C.S., Eng. Prize Essay 1 n.— On the Changes which take place in the Field and in the Stack in Haymaking. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker .. .. ^^0 III.—Rinderpest Precautions and Remedies. By Henry H. Dixon 59 IV.— Rainfall, Water Supply, and Storage. By Professor Ansted. Paj.^; J J 65 Y. Field Experiments of Crude German Potash-salts and Common Salt on Mangolds, By Dr. Augustus Voelcker 86 VI.— Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert .. •• 91 VII. Reports of the Committees appointed to investigate the present state of Steam Cultivation : — Report of the Inspection Committee No. 1 (Reed) .. .. 97 Report of the Inspection Committee No. 2 (Clarke) .. 198 Report of the Supplementary Committee (Coleman) .. 373 VIII.— Address of the President to the General Meeting, held W^ December 12, 1866 428 'y^ IX.— The Agriculture of Worcestershire, By Clement Cadle. ••— Prize Essay j^^ £>_ X. — Town Sewage 4*^^ XI— Affections of the Bladder amongst fattening Sheep and ^ Lambs. By W. E. Litt, M.R.C.V.S. .. : 495 CC XIT.— Field Experiments on Root-Crops. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker 500 "*^ XIII.— On the Rearing and Management of Poultry on an ordinary ^ Farm. By Mrs. F. Somerville. Prize Essay 520 XIV.— Feeding Turkeys, Geese, and Ducks for the London Market. By Henry H. Dixon ^32 XV.— Extracts from the Report on the Agricultural Exhibition at Aarhuus (Denmark). By John Wilson, Professor of Agri- culture in the University of Edinburgh 536 IV CONTENTS. ARTICLE PAGE XVI. — Results of Experiments on the Potato Crop with reference to tlie most profitable size of the sets ; the influence of thick and thin planting, &c., carried out in the years 18G4 and 1865 at Benthall, near Broseley. By George Maw, F.S.A., G.S., L.S., Member of the Eoyal Agricultural College. Prize Essay ., 552 XVII. — On the Improved Value of Scotch Sheep. By G. Murray . , 570 XVIII, — Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in the Metropolis, By Robert Herbert 57G XIX. — On the Composition and Nutritive Value of Anthyllis Vul- neraria (Lady's Fingers) as a Fodder Plant. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker 581 XX, — Remarks on the Implement Department at Bury. By Earl Cathcart, Senior Steward 584 XXI, — General Report on the Implement Show at Bury St. Edmund's. By John Coleman 591 XXII. — Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Bury St. Edmund's. By C. Randell, Senior Steward 624 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions : Some of the Causes which Produce Disarrangements of the Digestive Organs in Young Sheep. A Lecture, by Professor Simonds 635 The Relative Value and Manurial Properties of Purchased Food. A Lecture by Professor Voelcker 650 Reclamation of Land from the Sea. By S. Shellabear .. ., 659 Steam Cultivation 669 APPENDIX. PAGE List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1867 i, xxxix Standing Committees for 1867 iii, xli Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscription, &c v, xliv Report of the Council to the General Meeting, December 12, 1866 ; and May 22, 1867 vi, xlv Yearly Cash Account, from 1st January to December 31, 1866 .. xi Cash Accounts and Balance-sheets, from 1st July to Dec, 31, 1866 ; and from 1st January to 30th June, 1867 xii, xlviii Agricultural Education xiv Essays and Reports. — Awards for 1866. Prizes for 1868 .. xvii, Ixxviii Schedule of Prizes : Bury St. Edmunds Meeting, 1867 xviii Report of Education Committee I Show at Bury St. Edmund's, and Award of Prizes Iii Members' Chemical Analysis and Veterinary Privileges xxxvii, xxxviii, Ixxxi, Ixxxii DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. The Binder is desired to colleit togetlier all the Appendix matter, with Koman nunipral folios, and p'.ace it at the ami of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Sti\tisties, &c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beyinnmg of tlie Volume: the lettering at the back to include a statement of the ]/ea»- as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the second to 1811, the third to 1812, the fourth to 1843, and so on. In reprints of the Journal, all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the body of tbe Journal), which at the time hud become obsolete, were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios, however (for convenience of reference) were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter retained. CONTENTS OF PART I., VOL. III. Second Seeies. Statistics : — tage Vital Statistics for the year 1866 Meteorology for the six months ending December 31, 1866 Price of Provisions — Pauperism ditto Emigration for the six months ending December 31, 1866 Imports of Corn, &c. ditto ditto British Wheat sold, and Average Prices viii, ix Statute Acres under Crops, Grass, &c.; Number of Cattle and Sheep ix I II VI VI VII, VIII ARTICLE PAGE I. — The Use, to the Farmer, of a Magnifying-glass or Simple Microscope. By W. Kencely Bridgman, L.D.S., E.CS., Eng. Prize Essay 1 II. — On the Changes which take place in the Field and in the Stack in Haymaking. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker .. .. 30 III. — Einderpest Precautions and Eemedies. By Henry H. Dixon 59 IV. — Eainfall, Water Supply, and Storage. By Professor Ansted. Part II 65 V. — Field Experiments of Crude German Potash-salts and Common Salt on Mangolds. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker .. ,. .. 86 VI. — Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in the Metropolis. By Eobert Herbert 91 VII. — Eeports of the Committees appointed to investigate the present state of Steam Cultivation : — Eeport of the Inspection Committee No. 1 (Reed).. .. 97 Eeport of the Inspection Committee No. 2 (Clarke) . . 198 Eeport of the Supplementary Committee (Coleman) .. 373 VIII.' — Address of the President to the General Meeting, held December 12, 1866 428 CONTENTS. APPENDIX. PAGE List of Officers of tlio Eoj'al Agricultural Society of England, 1SG7 . , i Standing Committees for 1867 iii Memoranda of Meetings, Tayment of Subscription, &c v Keport of the Council to the General Meeting, December 12, 186G .. vi Yearly Cash Account, from 1st January to December 31, 1866 .. .. xi Cash Account and Balance-sheet, from 1st July to Dec. 31, 1866 . . . . xii Agricultural Education xiv Essays and Eeports. — Awards for 1866 xvii Schedule of Prizes : Bury St. Edmunds Meeting, 1867 xviii Members' Chemical Analysis and Veterinary Privileges .. .. xxxvii, xxxviii DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and place it at the end of each voluTiie of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics, &c., which are in all eases to be placed at the beginnini) of the Volume: the lettering at the back to include a statement of the yeaj* as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on. In reprints of the Journal, all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the body of the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios, however (for convenience of reference) were reprinted without alteration in the Appendi.\ matter retained. VITAL STATISTICS ; METEOROLOGY ; IMPORTS OF GRAIN; QUANTITIES OF BRITISH WHEAT SOLI); PRICES OF FOOD; EMIGRATION; PAUPERISM; ACREAGE OF CROPS, GRASS, &c. ; NUMBERS OF CATTLE AND SHEEP. \_The facts are selected from the Beports of the Registrar-Gexeral ; the Meteor olocjical lleports of Mr. Glaisher ; the Returns of the Inspector- , General of Imports and Exports, and of the Board of Trade.] Population of the United Kingdom estimated to the middle of 1866 :— ^ifales 14,459,314 Females 15,476,090 Persons •• 29,935,404 Of the total number of persons England contained, 21,210,020; Scotland, 3,153,413; Ireland, 5,571,971. The recorded number of Emigrants from British and Irish ports in 1866 was 204,882, or 561 daily. Between the excess of births over deaths in the United Kingdom and the emigration from it, the difference was 390 daily. England. Births in 1S66. Annual Birth- rate to 1000 persons living (1866). Average Birth- rate to 1000 persons living (1856-65). First Quarter: Jan., Feb., March Second Quarter : April, May, June Third Quarter; July, Aug., Sept. Fourth Quarter : Oct., Nov., Dec. 196,737 192,459 178,982 185,010 37-76 36-44 35 '44 34-47 36-44 36*20 55'45 33-22 Year 753,188 35-53 34-82 Deaths in 1S66. Annual Death- rate to 1000 jiersoiis living (1860). Average Death- rate to 1000 persons living (1856-65). First Quarter : Jan., Feb., March Second Quarter: April, May, June Third Quarter : July, Aug., Sept. Fourth Quarter : Oct., Nov., Dec. 158,233 128,692 116,826 117,187 26-53 24-37 21-82 21-84 25-04 21-86 20*02 22-05 Year 500,938 23-64 22-24 VOL. in. — s. s. A C 11 ) In districts that comprise the chief towns the mortality was, 26-39. In districts comprising small towns and country parishes, 20-10. The eleven divisions may be thus arranged in the order of annual mortality : the deaths per 1000 were in the South-Eastem counties 19, Eastern counties 20, South-Midland counties 20, South- Western counties 20, North-Midland counties 21, West-Midland counties 22, Monmouthshire and Wales 23, Northei-n counties 24, Yorkshire 26, London 26, North- Western counties (Lancashire and Cheshire) 29. The Black country, as it is called, about Wolverhampton, may be cited amongst other proofs of the efficiency of hygienic measures. The cholera epidemics of 1849 and 1854 destroyed in five districts more than 3000 lives, while in the year 1866 the mortality from cholera has been inconsiderable. The water was formerly impure and could only be obtained with difficulty in a country covered with pits and works ; but good water having been brought from a distance, the popidation is reaping the advantages of the change. METEOEOLOGY. Third Quarter {July, August, September). The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the summer quarter was 58-9°, which is 1-1° below the average of the season in twenty-five years. Each of the three months, but particularly August, was cold. The rain- fall measured 7-9 inches, half of which occurred in September, when the amount exceeded the average by an inch and a half. The weather, which had been warm and fine at the close of the previous quarter, changed to cold at the beginning of July, and in every part of the country rain fell almost daily. From the 9th to the 17th was a period of heat, but from the 18th July to the 27th September the temperature was almost constantly low. Eain fell frequently all over the country in July, and in August seriously interrupted harvest work. In September the atmospheric pressure was always low, and in Guernsey and the west of England 8 or 9 inches of rain fell ; near the east coast 3 inches ; about London 4 inches. In the midland counties there were floods ; thousands of acres were under water, and much damage was done. In the three visitations of cholera in past years there was great atmospheric pressure, high temperature, narrow diurnal range owing chiefly to high night temperature, defect of rain, wind, and electricity; and in the last of those (1854) a remarkable blue mist was observed which pre- vailed night and day. In nearly all these particulars the meteoro- ( ni ) logical character of the present epidemic season is diiFerent from that of previous periods when cholera prevailed ; but the blue mist has been again visible ; it was first seen by Mr. Glaisher on 30th July, and by other observers in the preceding week. Since that time it has been generally present ; on some days no trace of it visible, and on other days seen for parts of a day only. It has extended from Aberdeen to the Isle of Wight, and was of the same tint of blue everywhere. This mist increased in intensity when viewed through a telescope ; usually no mist can be seen when thus viewed ; it increased in density during the fall of rain, though usually mist rises from rain. Its density did not decrease when the wind was blowing moderately strong ; it decreased when a gale was blowing, but increased again on its subsidence. Whatever may be its nature, the fact is very remarkable, that since the cholera period of 1854 this phenomenon has not been observed till the present time. Fourth Quarter (^October, November, .December'). The close of the autumnal quarter was distinguished by much rain and the want of sunshine, and by south-west winds which had long prevailed. In the first week of October the barometer rose, the wind changed to north-east, and the mean temperature for eleven days was 3° above the average. This was followed by a week of cold weather. From 19th October to the end of the quarter the temperature was in excess without any considerable interruption, except from 28th November to 2nd December, in which period the weather was cold. October closed with variable weather, sometimes with fog, at others with rain, and occasional white frosts at night. In the beginning of November barometric pressure exhibited great fluctua- tions ; snow fell in Scotland ; and throughout the month the weather was changeable. In December there was frequent rain, and there were very heavy gales from the south-west; but the month was unusually mild for the season. The last two months were favourable for agricultural operations. In November ploughing and sowing made great progress, except in Yorkshire and Lancashire, where about the middle of the month were extensive floods ; and at the end of the year the pastures were of a fresh green, and food for cattle was abundant. At Greenwich in each month the mean temperature was above the average. It was 51-3° in October, 44-3° in November, 42-9° in December; the mean of the quarter was 46-2°. Eain fell to the amount of 5'4° inches in the quarter, which is 1*7 inches below the average. 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CO OO o 00 CO OO 1866. Months. 3 3 a 9^4 , , Sclileswig, Holstein, and Lauenberg 254, 159 ,, Mecklenburg 647,685 ,, Hause Towns 486,069 ,, France 2,252,873 , , Turkey and Wallachia and Moldavia 5 74, 185 ,, Egypt 10,063 ,, United States 1,177,618 ,, British North America 306,765 ,, Other countries 1,114,480 Cwts. Total 20,962,963 8,937>i99 4,401,409 506.236 i87;938 733,571 878,912 3,473,130 528,433 33,831 635,239 8,789 2,831,642 23,156,329 Barley 7,818,404 Oats 7,714,230 Peas 783,135 Beans 958,362 Indian Corn, or Maize 7 > 096, 03 3 8,433,863 8,844,586 1,211,835 1)324,173 14,322,863 Wheatmeal and Flour from Hanse Towns ,. .. 247,796 ,, ,, France 3,044,823 ,, ,, United States .. .. 256,769 ,, ,, British North America 177,353 ,, ,, Other countries . . .. 177,730 347,012 3,640,320 280,792 40,650 663,506 Total i904,47J[ 4,972,280 ( VIII ) Quantities of Wheat, Barley, and Oats, Imported into the Ukited Kingdom in each of the last Six Months of the Year 1S6G. 1866. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Third Quarter. Seventh month (four weeks ending") July 28) I Eighth month (four weeks ending"! August 25 / Ninth month (five weeks ending"! September 29) j Fourth Quarter. Tenth montli (four weeks ending"! October 27) / Eleventh month (four weeks end-"! ing November 24) / Twelfth month (five weeks ending) (, December 29) / cwts. 2,102,486 1,600,337 1,452,152 i>438,i42 1,716,370 3,333,603 cwts. 370,616 353,978 547,076 715,981 889,723 1,580,348 cwts. 935, 6r6 1,489,129 880,349 522,932 518,084 813,773 Total in the half year 11,643,090 4,457,722 5,159,883 Note. — The average weights ^jer quarter of corn, as adopted in the office of the Inspector-General of Imports and Exports, are as follows : — For wheat, 48.5^ lbs., or 41 cwts. ; for barley, 400 lbs., or o| cwts. ; for oats, 0O8 lbs., or 2J cwts. Corn has been entered and charged with duty by iveicjid instead of measure since Sep- tember 1864. Quantities of British "Wheat Sold in the Towns from which Returns are received under the Act of the 27th and 28th Victoria, cap. 87 ; and their Average Prices ; in each of the last Six Months of the Years 1861-66. Seventh mouth Eighth month Ninth month ] (five weeks) J Tenth month .. Eleventh month Twelfth month ] (five weeks) J Wheat : Quaktities m Quarters. 1861. quarters. 159,152 208,400 455,324 427,435 345,028 359,246 1862. quorters. 165,720 138,810 264,410 273,000 265,160 315,599 1863. quarters. 162,817 187,011 390,308 333,609 325,209 472,876 1864. quarters. 257,510 264,939 322,292 311,169 302,446 399,358 1865. quarters. 222,961 201,953 318,893 304,054 295,652 391,941 1866. quarters. 127,836 19^,057 325,056 320,674 284,530 332,934 Wheat : Average Prices per Quarter. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. ,s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Seventh month 50 8 57 46 7 42 42 10 54 I Eighth month . . 50 8 57 8 46 2 43 7 43 3 50 7 Ninth month 1 (five weeks) / 54 7 56 I 44 6 42 44 49 Tenth month . . 56 10 49 5 40 10 38 9 41 10 52 4 Eleventh month 59 10 49 39 It 38 10 45 7 56 6 Twelfth month \ (five weeks) J 60 10 46 8 40 9 38 3 46 8 60 3 ( IX ) AvEBAGE Prices of British Wheat, Barley, and Oats per Quarter (imperial measure) as received from the Inspectors aud Officers of Excise according to the Act of 27th and 28th Victoria, cap. 87, in each of the last Twenty- six Weeks of the Year 1866. Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oats. Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oats. 8. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. July 7 .. .. 54 6 35 5 27 7 October 6 . . 52 2 41 4 23 I July 14 55 10 35 I 27 7 October 13 52 7 42 I 23 July 21 54 33 5 26 2 October 20 52 2 42 II 22 II July 28 52 35 10 27 I October 27 52 6 41 8 22 10 August 4 .. 51 r 32 II 25 3 November 3 54 9 43 10 23 7 August II .. 50 2 35 2 26 6 November 10 57 2 44 9 23 5 August 1 8 .. 50 2 34 9 26 6 ' November 1 7 56 7 45 3 23 6 August 25 .. 50 ID 33 8 26 6 November 24 57 6 45 6 23 9 September i 49 7 35 I 25 3 December i 60 45 10 25 5 September 8 47 3 36 I 25 2 December 8 61 7 46 2 24 3 September 15 47 c 37 I 24 8 December 15 60 3 45 7 24 5 September 22 49 8 37 ID 24 I December 22 59 5 44 4 25 II September 29 51 5 40 I 24 3 December 29 60 44 24 3 Average Prices per Quarter of British Corn in England and Wales in each of the Years 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866. 1863. 1864. Wheat Barley Oats . . s. d. s. 44 9 ! 40 3i II I 30 21 3 20 1865. 5. d, 41 10 29 9 21 ID 1866. 5. d. 50 o 37 6 24 8 Statute Acres under Crops, Grass, &c. ; Numbers of Cattle and Sheep. Population in 1861. Area in Statute Acres. Acreage under all kinds of Crops, Bare Fallow, and Grass (1866). Estimated Ordinary Stock of Cattle (1866). Number of Sheep as returned in 1866. England .. Wales .. Scotland .. Ireland . . 18,954,444 1,111,780 3,062,294 5,798,967 32,59o.,397 4,734,486 19,639,377 20,322,641 22,261,833 2,284,674 4,158,360 15,549,796* 3,420,044 546,966 968,637 3,742,932 15,124,541 1,668,663 5,255,077 4,270,027 Hill pastures are excluded in Great Britain, included in Ireland. England Wales . Scotland Ireland . Wheat. Acres. 3,161,431 113,862 no, lOI 300,474 Barley or Bere. Acres. 1,877.387 146,323 213,619 152,777 Oats. Acres. 1,503,990 251,893 1,004,040 1,697,648 Eye. 50,570 2,452 7,055 7,753 Beans. Acres. 492,586 3,534 28,537 12,175 Peas. Acres. 314,206 3,010 3,188 2,606 Total of Com Crops. Acres. 7,400,170 521,074 1,366,540 2,173,433 In England wheat formed 42-7 per cent, of corn crops; barley 25'4, oats 20-3. In Wales the proportions were respectively 21-8j 28-1, 48-3; in Scotland S'l, 15-6, 73-5; in Ireland 13-8, 7-0, 78-1. A o VITAL STATISTICS: — POPULATION; BIETHS; DEATHS; EMIGEATION; METEOROLOGY; IMPORTATIONS OP GRAIN; SALES OF BRITISH WHEAT; PRICES OF CORN, &c.; AND PAUPERISM. \The facts are derived cldefly from the Eeports of the Registrar-General ; the Meteorological Heports of Mr. Glaisher; the Beturns of the Board OF Trade, and the Inspector-General of Imports and Exports.] Population of tlie United Kingdom, estimated to the middle of the 3'ear 18G7 (exclusive of islands in the British seas) : — Males 14,548,808 Females 15,608,431 Total 30,157,239 England. Scotland. Ireland. Males ., .. 10,365,688 1,496,329 2,686,791 Females.. .. 11,063,820 1,674,440 2,870,171 Total .. 21,429,508 3,170,769 5,556,962 ENGLAND AND WALES. Births and Deaths In the first six months of 1867. Births in Winter quarter (January, February, March), 195,455. Annual birth-rate to 100 living — Winter, 3-713 ; average,* 3-663. Births in Spring quarter (April, May, June), 199,649. Annual birth-rate to 100 living — Spring, 3-742; average,* 3-619. Deaths in Winter quarter (January, February, March), 134,254. Annual death-rate to 100 living — Winter, 2-551 ; average,* 2-551. Deaths in Spring quarter (April, May, June), 112,523. Annual death-rate to 100 living — Spring, 2-109 ; average,* 2-218. The mortality per cent, in the districts of England that comprise the Chief Towns was 2-732 in the winter quarter; while that of small towns and country parishes was 2-315. In the Spring the rate of mortality declined in the large towns to 2*119, and in the small towns and rural parts to 1-991. The returns in the Winter quarter were on the whole satisfactory. ' * The averages are dra-wn from the cori'esponding -winters or springs in ten years, 1857-66. VOL. III. — F. S. ^ A 4 C XII ) The marriages and the births were above the average numbers. The death-rate was exactly the average of the season, but lower than in any of the three previous winters. Had it not been for the intensely cold weather in January, which proved fatal to many old people, and for epidemics of whooping-cough, small-pox, and measles, the results would have been still more favourable. Cholera was only epidemic in Durham. Prices were high, and potatoes — ■ an esculent which possesses valuable antiscorbutic properties — were scarce. The Spring quarter was genial. The births exceeded the average number of the season, and the low mortality presented a striking contrast to that prevailing in the spring of 186G. Sanitary work was accelerated last year by the impending epidemic of Asiatic cholera, and the efforts then made appear to have borne fruit. The marriage-rate was below the average in the winter quarter, and reflected the prevailing depression of certain classes of industry. If care is not taken to ventilate the sewers thorouglily, the vola- tile matters by which typhoid fever and other zymotic diseases are propagated, must be communicated, by means of the house-drains, from one dwelling to another. But the chief security against a danger incidental to the existing system of town drainage lies in abundance of water, with sufficient fall to propel the whole body of refuse to a distance, and to disperse its gases in limitless space. Increase op Population, and Emigration. The excess of births over deaths in the Winter quarter was 61,201 ; in the Spring quarter 87,126, which latter number repre- sents an excess of 957 daily. Against this increase is put the loss by emigration. The number of emigrants in the former quarter from all ports in the United Kingdom where emigration officers are stationed, was 26,753, of whom about 8000 were English, 1200 Scotch, 14,000 Irish, 3000 foreigners. There went to the United States nearly 7000 English, 900 Scotch, 13,000 Irish. 2000 persons of various origin went to the Australian colonies; less than 100 to British North America. In the March quarter of the three years 1865-6-7, the total emigration was 27,513, 39,672, and 26,753. In the Spring quarter 73,571 emigrants, of whom 12,695 were foreigners, left British and Irish shores. Of 16,718 persons of English origin, 11,980 went to the United States, 2028 to British North America, 2142 to the Australian colonies, and 568 to other places. ( xni ) METEOEOLOGY. First Quarter (January, February, Marcli). The month of Januaiy opened with a severe frost, which continued at Greenwich till the 5th, and the defect of temperature was great, particularly on the 4th. The thermometer fell to zero at many places, and below that point at others. Snow fell frequently all over the country, and to such amount that traffic by road or railway was rendered difficult, and in some places was quite suspended. This severity of weather was succeeded by a sudden thaw, and by heavy gales of wind from the west and south-west. The snow was cleared away rapidly, and its sudden melting caused rivers to overflow their banks in many parts of the country. From January 6th to 10th the average excess of daily temperature above the average was 7°. On the 11th another period of frost set in and continued till January 2 2d, during which there were several very heavy falls of snow, especially in the northern parts of the kingdom. Cases were reported of persons who had perished in the snow. The average daily deficiency of tempe- rature on those twelve days was nearly 10°. On the morning of the 23d a sudden change took place ; the temperature was no less than 20° higher than that of the preceding day, and a period of warmth almost unprecedented for the season commenced, which lasted for thirty-five days. The average excess of temperature during this period was 7° daily ; and it is necessary to go back as far as 1779 for a period of higher temperature and of equally pro- longed duration. The melting of the snow and heavy falls of rain produced inundations which were extensive in some parts of York- shire and Lincolnshire. From February 27th to the end of March the weather, except on a few days, was cold and wintry ; snow and sleet were frequent all over the country. In the first three weeks of March the average daily defect of temperature at Greenwich was nearly 7°. January and March will be distinguished in meteorology for their severe frosts and snow-falls, February by its high tempe- rature, and the whole quarter by an unusual succession of heavy gales. In February the excess of rain and the floods impeded agri- cultural operations ; while in March vegetation was checked, and growing crops damaged by the protracted wintry character of the season. Second Quarter (April, May, June). At Greenwich the mean tempe- rature of the air in the shade was 53°-5 ; it was l°-3 above the average of 96 years. Of every month the temperature was above the average; but the variations were so unusually great as to seriously affect plants of every kind. April was unsettled, windy, rainy, ( XIV ) c3 f*-* S O to ■* ■"I- ^j- ^ r< o r< o o M != ^ b 1 b + b 1 b 1 & b + b b 1 b S§^ -^.St»< ■a .a i o 00 M (S ►A E rA rA o rA So »• 00 Tj- rA CTN sD ri r< w^ ^ag ro ■& rA O r* O »H O 0) C3 o o o O _c O O o O 1^ b o b b b b b + ?l o S^ 1 + 1 1 + + 1 It § C oo ON .2 j:; ? 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M IH M ^ o vO b W ON ^ s M M M M M r< r< M So » ■<1- -t a^ rA vO M 00 VD P ® !3 -*j o WA w^ rA H o r» b O b .3 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + o 5§S o Q g t~- O w^ M o O ^ O ^ 0^ o o b n ^ rA VA b VD a 'i- rA rA 'J- Tj- VA 'i- i"£ -4- •^ 0^ O rA M ON vn a. § g £ «> fe (5 %'^ ^ VA rA M o u b b b o 1 o 1 + 1 1 + + 1 + 5 \D >J^ ^ri Ov M -+ oo OO » V o ;:, n w^ vO o NO ON rA ON 1^ rv^ Tj- rA rA Nl- •J^ o vO o 1 + 1 b 1 o + b + T b + o^S So „; o •* rA Tt- M CO o rA i3 <1 .fcS>§ o o r^ b ^ b b M 1 + 1 + + + + 5§S i M r> r-^ ON o 'i- M lA o o Tt- rj- r-~ 03 ON rA OO rA 1 ro ^ rA rA '^ KA WN VA CO 00 u H S5 O a 3 P U cS a O u a a < 4) a a a 1-5 fe C^ r^i ►-S ( XV ) ■ -.^ M ^ $ -:t- •a ^ b !> ^ P "S £^ « 'I- ■^ w ^ ^r ^j^ >J^ w^^ 1 o l.i' 3 r< w >J^ ■s M M r-» £ M f, H o> 00 g w^ VJ-V vn is 3 tA P <-< '^ ;i r» r< FA a ','' o m ¥ r^ ^ a »^ '^ 00 ^ a w »^ ^ c^ H 1-1 HI M •A s H p o rfl S o" a c ■3 S M U2 o> Cv kA a .3 00 ■0 a i 'A *w> ^f 00 (S 00 M 00 m -I- w a 00 2 S ■3 -S u h%l< [» rf C^ OT r^ ■^ ri fl M Th -^ C5 •*- ^ <) t^ r^ os|l l^ r^ ro <^ n rn s '^t- ■^ rt S m wa"3 Et _g M b 1-^ b a M b b b 1 lA b 1 a ^§a + 1 + M + + + 1 + c <§ _^ ?• g 00 (S m F1 ^-1 J r» 7^ 00 a rA i ^ a M M ri 3 yo .s (s r< M 5 «£> c > E 1 + M 1 i "4- 1 VA 1 ^ + 1 p ^ •^ ^, M r-^ U^ r^ * 5 a & -r ^r\ & rA r^ r^ rA ^ s u^ "-V lA M-\ vAi w^ »J-\ fcA 3 6"0 tJ r^ rA , *; tog . (3 M )-( " ■5 1 •0 5 S=^ b 1 b + b 1 b 1 1 1 + 1 H ^ ^S. M rt- CO CT> 00 m An c3 l_i r-^ M rA rr\ VO "S « 0^ a C> 0^ J a ori >. 2 a* t; 5^^ >-r\ '-' ri M r< '^ If 1 1 1 + 1 + * ca a ( -t rl ro ^ lA s 00 00 00 00 00 " J 1867. Months. 03 a c C3 •-5 5 ri 05 < a s 1-5 1- !2 ( XVI ) rainy, and warmer than usual. May, after the first few days, brought us brilliant sunshine ; the heat of summer filled the air, and vegetation shot out luxuriantly. Then came a great change ; the sky grew cloudy, the weather cold, the nights frosty. The ground and the tender shoots of plants were frozen. Flowers were in blossom; the cuckoo, the swallow, and the nightingale had come ; but it was winter weather. The young shoots of holly, ivy, walnut, beech, and even oak, were injured in many places. Straw- berries and peas in flower were nipped ; potatoes were damaged. At the end of May and in the beginning of June came warmth and rain, followed by cooler days to the end of the month. The hay crop was excellent, and was stacked in good condition. No signs of the potato disease were visible. FOOD — PEICES. QtTANTiTiES of Wheat, Wheatmeal and Flour, Barley, Oats, Peas and Beans, Imported into the United Kingdom in each of the first Six Months of the Year 1867. 1867. Wheat. Wheatmeal and Flour. Barley. Oats. Peas. Beans. cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. January .. 2,280,431 369,735 925,866 709,877 190,440 163,724 February 1,423,169 266,934 421,591 280,370 73,509 178,337 March 2,358,252 248,514 789,199 639,967 49,053 174,086 April 3,230,018 245,280 589,184 781,584 72,421 134,464 May . . 3,212,207 387,971 380,640 1,113,114 162,180 150,378 June 1,944,479 304,638 229,996 756,238 195*515 195,017 Total in) Six [ Months ) i4,448,55^J 1,823,072 3,336,476 4,281,150 743,118 996,006 Note. — The average weights per quarter of com, as adopted in the office of the Inspector-General of Imports and Exports, are as follows :— For wheat, 485J lbs., or 41 cwts. ; for barley, 400 lbs., or S| cwts. ; for oats, 308 lbs., or 2f cwts. Corn has been entered and charged with duty by weight instead of measure since Sep- tember 1864. ( XVII ) Quantities of Wheat, Barley, Oats, Peas, Beans, Indian Corn or Maize, Wheatmeal and Flour, Imported in the Six Months ended SOtli June in the three Years 18G5-6-7 ; also the Countries from which the Wheat and Wheatmeal were obtained. Wheat from — Eussia Denmark Prussia Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg Mecklenburg Hanse Towns Trance }. Turkey and Wallachia and Moldavia Egypt United States British North America Other countries Total Wheat Barley Oats Peas Beans Indian Corn, or Maize Wheatmeal and Flour from — Hanse Towns France United States British North America Other countries Total Wheatmeal and Flour 1865. 1866. cwts. 2,693,820 233,665 2,260,322 134,640 260,768 245 ,822 460,662 352,393 212,901 21,187 586,088 7,462,268 4,161,894 3,081,990 218,068 436,033 2,076,918 129,294 ,231,380 108,694 14,136 78,871 1,562,375 cwts. 3,649,398 148,615 1,663, 193 73,507 302,225 315,701 2,683,389 295,973 7,012 315 ,160 8,789 2,045,714 1867. 11,508,676 3,954,929 3,490,490 542,637 244,376 6,151,931 130,352 2,713,046 164,735 6,142 120,209 3,134,484 cwts. 5,147,296 305,412 3,532,054 83,599 498,343 432,281 418,793 1,338,159 48,505 1,071,512 87 1,572,515 14,448,556 . 3,336,476 4,281,150 743,118 996,006 4,563,553 238,053 882,613 106,272 6,584 589,550 J 1,823,072 The importation of wheat in the first six months of 1867 shows a considerable excess over the amounts imported in the corresponding periods of two preceding years, — that excess being 25 per cent, over 1866 ; 93 per cent, over 1865. Eussia continued to supply about a third of the whole; and Prussia, whence a much less quantity was received in the previous year in consequence of the war, supplied about a fourth of the total amount. From France the supply, which was large in 1866, has been lately inconsiderable; while that from the United States, though still comparatively small, has increased. Sixty per cent, of wheat imported in the last half- year came from the Russian and Prussian dominions. The principal supply of wheat-flour is from France ; and in the first half of the current year it was greatly diminished. For in the same period of 1865 French flour was 79 per cent, of the whole quantity; in that of 1866 it was 86 per cent. ; and this year only 48 per cent. The supply from some other countries increased. C xviii ) Quantities of British Wheat Sold in the Towns from which Returns are received under the Act of the 27th and 28th Victobia, cap. 87, and their Average Prices, in each of the first Six Months of the Years 1862-67. First month .. Second month Third month (five ■weeks) Fourth month . . Fifth month .. Sixth month (five weeks) Quantities in Quaktees. 1862. quarters. 220,266 242,229 277,410 173,174 185,356 208,042 1863, quarters. 262,923 239,882 281,405 243,552 267,587 302,897 1864. 1865. quarters. 344,930 306,713 350,974 285,286 284,601 333,201 quarters. 300,816 298,271 373,069 261,501 327,694 283,528 1866. quarters. 212,713 259,999 331,295 250,159 250,890 245,393 1867. quarters. 221,791 203 , 900 280,878 205,231 221,067 196,985 Av ERAGE PEICE. > PER Quarter. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. First month , . Second month,. Third month ) (five weeks) J Fourth mouth . . Fifth month ,. Sixth month ) (five weeks) j s. 61 60 59 58 58 54 d. 4 3 7 s. 47 47 45 45 46 46 d. 5 3 8 7 4 8 s. d. 40 7 40 b 40 I 40 39 2 39 8 s. d. 38 6 38 3 38 6 39 8 41 41 5 s. d. 45 10 45 7 45 4 44 10 46 3 48 3 8. d. 61 5 60 II 59 9 61 7 64 8 65 5 Average Prices of British Corn per Quarter (imperial measure) as received from the Inspectors and Officers of Excise according to the Act of 27th and 28th Victoria, cap, 87, in each of the first Twenty-six Weeks of the Year 1867. Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oat s. Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oats. s. d. s. d. S. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. January 5 .. 60 2 43 6 24 2 April 6 61 2 39 7 23 9 January 12 .. 61 43 5 24 2 April 13 ,. 60 9 39 9 24 5 January 19 .. 62 3 44 5 23 4 April 20 .. 61 4 39 8 25 5 January 26 .. 62 2 45 9 24 5 April 27 ,. 62 II 39 I 25 6 February 2 .. 62 6 45 2 24 6 May 4 .. .. (>3 10 39 9 25 3 February 9 . . 6r 4 45 3 24 9 i May II 64 9 38 II 25 10 February 16 59 10 43 9 23 6 May 18 .. 64 II 38 II 27 February 23 59 II 43 4 24 3 ' May : -, (>5 3 37 10 26 2 March 2 59 8 42 4 24 8 Juue I .. .. 05 5 37 9 26 ID March 9 59 3 41 5 24 I June 8 , . . . 65 4 36 9 27 4 March 16 .. 59 4 41 5 24 9 June 15 65 9 36 2 27 8 Marcli 23 59 9 40 5 24 8 June 22 65 8 35 27 7 March 30 ,. 60 II 39 6 24 II June 29 64 10 35 3 28 Average of 1 ' Average of Winter > 60 7 43 I 24 4 Spring Quarter J 64 38 26 3 Quarter J ( XIX ) The Average Prices of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, and of Potatoes; also the Average Number of Paupers relieved' on the last day of each Week ; and the Mean Temperature, in each of the Nine Quarters ending June 30th, 1867. Average Prices. Pauperism. Quarters euding Consols (for Money). AVheat per Quarter in England and Wales. Meat per lb. at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets (by the Carcase). Best Potatoes per Ton at Waterside Marine t, Southwark. Quarterly Average of the Nunibe'r of Paupers re- lieved on the JaU day of each week. Mean Tempe- rature. Beef. Mutton. In-door. Out-door. 1865 June 30 £. S. d. 40 6 4f(/.— 6f^. Mean ffrf. ^Id.—Hd. Mean "jld. 90s. — 115s. Mean 102s. bd. 125,846 776,016 56-2 Sept. 3Q 89^ 43 3 45^/. — "jd. Mean 5f J. GJrf— 8|v/. Mean -j^d. 65s. lOOS. Mean 85s. 117,172 719.589 62-5 Dec. 31 1866 88^ 44 10 Ald.-ld. Mean 5|cf. c,hd.—i\d. Mean 6|rf. 60s. — 90s. Mean 75 s. 129,036 725.259 46*0 Mar. 31 87 45 6 4jrf.-6frf. Mean c^^d. ^Id.-lld. Mean b^. 55s. — 90s. Mean 72s. bd. 139,546 759,402 41-2 June 30 86^5 46 6 Ald.—-]d. Mean 5|cf. Shd.—2,ld. Mean 70?. 60s. — 95s. Mean j-js.bd. 123,657 734.139 53-0 Sept. 30 881 51 5K-7H Mean bid. sU.—^d. Mean 6|rf. 75 s. 1 2 OS. Mean 97s. bd. 120,955 717.553 58-9 Dec, 31 1867 89I 56 8 Ald.—-]d. Mean 5^^. sid.-iu. Mean 6|(/. 85s.— 130S. Mean 107s. 5d. 133,979 734,312 46*2 Mar. 31 903- 60 7 4?^^.— 7J. Mean 5|tf. 5rf— 7H Mean 6Jrf. 115s. — 160S. Mean 1 3 7s. bd. 147,620 832,364 38-9 June 30 ^n 64 A^d.—Gld. Mean i^'^d. bld.-lld. Mean 6Jld. Mean ^^d. Aid.—7d. Mean 5^1:?. 90s. — lies. Mean loos. 1864 903 126,753 788,689 4'.d.—Gid. Mean ^^d. S'id.—-]d. Mean C^\d. 64s. — 86s. Mean 75s. 1865 m 127,589 758,199 Ahd.—'id. Mean c,'^d. iid.—'d^d. Mean -jd. 75s. lOlS. Mean 88s. 5(Z. 1866 891 129,534 73^^,35JC Aid. — -d. Mean 5f(Z. i^hl.— '6d. Mean 6ffi. 69s. IIOS. Mean 89s. 6cZ. PAUPERISM. The annual return of the number of paupers in England at the beginning of the year shows tliat on the 1st of January, 1867, the number was 963,200, being 1 in 21, or 4'8 per cent, of the actual po])ulatiou, and an increase of 38,387, or 4*2 per cent., over the number at the corresponding date in 1866. The details whicli follow do not absolutely agree with the above statement, owing to 810 paupers having been in receipt of both indoor and outdoor relief. The indoor ])aup(irs on t\w 1st of January, 1867, were 148,195 ; the outdoor 81.5,005. 201,511 were men, 411,136 women, 345,877 children ; 41(i,310 were able-bodied, 501,124 not able-bodied, 41,090 insane ; and 5027 vagrants. Of the able-bodied, 41,729 were men, and 11(;,579 wonuai ; and 258,002 children were relieved with tlieir parents classed among the able-bodied adults ; of the not able-bodied, 142,193 were men, 271,8(;4 women; 87,067 cliildren; and of the insane, 17,589 were men, 22,693 women, 808 children. The number of able-bodied adult paupers relieved was 158,308, an increase of 8988, or 6 per cent, over the number on tlie 1st of Januarj^ 1866. deceiving indoor relief there were 47,049 men, 46,276 women, 51,304 children, 3566 vagrants not otherwise classed ; or classing otherwise, 41,936 able-bodied, 92,176 not able- bodied, 10,517 insane, 3566 vagrants. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. I, — The use, to the Farmer, of a Magnify ing-glass or Simple Microscope. By W. Kencely Bkidgman, L.D.S.,E.C.S., Eng. Prize Essay. UpwaEDS of five-and-thirty years' experience in the almost daily use of the microscope for investigating subjects of natural history leads me to speak with some degree of confidence as to the benefit that this instrument may confer upon the farmer, by enabling him first to enter into the minutiae of the wondrous contrivances ordained by the Creator to maintain life, health, and succession in organised beings, and next to turn that know- ledge to account, by seconding the more recondite operations of nature in those processes wherein his interests are most con- cerned. Through neglect of such a resource, bad or defective seed may cause the loss of a season's growth ; crops may be wasted by the ravages of disease, which might have been stayed had it been sooner detected ; while by its adoption adulteration in feeding-stuffs, manures, and various other sub- stances, may be brought to light, so that the farmer may be no longer at the mercy of the manufacturer or the dealer. He may also gain much insight into the mode and principles of vegetable growth, of inflorescence and fructification, upon which the quantity and quality of grain depends, and by watching the influence of manures and other substances upon plants, he may learn the right time and manner of applying them, as well as the appearances of disease in its incipient stage and subsequent development, together with the action of all such preparations as either check or eradicate it. All these observa- tions come within the province of the microscope, and they are essential to the full development of agriculture as a science. The magnifying-glass or microscope must not, however, be mistaken for other than it really is — that is only "a means to an end ; " for it teaches us nothing, it only affords us the power of examining objects too small for the naked eye, and thus VOL. III.— S. S. B 2 The Use of a Simple Microscope. places those that are wholly invisible, or but slightly visible in the ordinary way, on an equality with larger structures for the purpose of examination. For instance, if we mix together a handful of beans, peas, wheat, oats, or any other of the larger seeds, any ordinary observer could sort out the different kinds with the naked eye, but to name them correctly would require previous knowledge. But if we substitute for these the grains of three or four different kinds of starch or pollen, no human eye, if unaided, would be able to detect the difference between them, although under the microscope this case would prove quite as practicable as the former. As, however, the objects to be examined f/ecrease in size, so must the magnifying power be zwcreased in proportion ; hence a range of powers becomes requisite ; and as these magnifying glasses vary in description, a short account, with diagrams of some that would prove serviceable to the farmer, has been appended to this paper, together with some few hints to novices and students as to the selection of glasses, the preparation of objects, and the choice of books of reference. It must, however, be borne in mind, that there is no royal road to knowledge, and in this respect the use of the magnifying-glass is not an exception ; its successful appli- cation must he acquired by practice. One of the first subjects for which the farmer would probably seek the aid of the magnifying-glass would probably be the seed required for sowing. Every species of seed, and almost every variety of each species, will be found to possess some difference in appearance, either of colour, size, or external marking, that will at once give it a distinctive character. In numerous instances the external tracery upon the testa, or skin of the seed, furnishes not only a beautiful microscopic object, but a means of identification. Henbane, tobacco, poppies, anise, and carraway, will serve as good illustrations of this fact, while each of the different species of silene, or catch-fly, will exhibit not only a strong family likeness, but likewise sufficiently distinc- tive traits to at once determine it specifically. It is almost impos- sible to obtain a correct idea of these characteristics in any other Avay than by actual observation ; hence all the seeds vised by the farmer, as well as those of the common weeds, should be ren- dered familiar to him by examii^ation and study. Defects and impurities in samples of seed fall under two heads : — 1st. Genuine seed, but barren or unripened ; or, again, ex- traneous substances that will not grow, added to increase bulk. 2nd. Other kinds of seed capable of growth, the plants from which would be undesirable or injurious to the crops or land. The strongest plants being derived from fully developed and Tlie Use of a Simple Microscope. 3 well ripened seeds, it will be the first consideration that the bul/i. of the sample shall consist of such. The character of these will be at once caught by the eye, and singled out as a prominent feature. A small quantity being taken into the palm of the hand, and a magnify ing-glass, proportionate to the size of the seed, being used, a tolerably fair estimate may be made of the entire sample, and any extraneous substances that are not seed at once detected. For the larger seeds a common hand magnifier will be suffi- cient, but for the more minute a much greater magnifying power will be required, at least until the observer shall have become perfectly familiar with the objects ; it is a well known fact that the faculty of recognising minute objects turns in a great degree upon familiarity with them, so that upon intimate acquaint- ance even very minute objects are readily recognised at a mere glance with a common lens. Such an acquaintance, however, can only be gained by the use of higher magnifying powers, hence the compound microscope, to be hereafter described, which answers the purpose both for the low and high powers, becomes an essential requirement. In the case of "grass seeds," in which one or more varieties of trefoil are commonly combined with various species of grasses, properly so called, the use of the microscope is important, because much of that which is sold under this name, consists principally of the sweepings of the hay-loft, and consequently is not ripened seed ; and it is only by the aid of a microscope that this can be detected. The first step will be to get rid of the minute seeds* and other small objects by sifting. After this has been done the different kinds of trefoil will be readily made out, but the different species of grass, although varying in size and form, are not easily discriminated, although by prac- tice much may be done. To give a practical illustration of such use of the microscope : — To get at the seed of grass, in order to ascertain whether it be well ripened or not, it will be necessary first to get rid of the " outer husk or chafF-scale," which is the peculiar calyx of grasses and plants allied to them. To accomplish this it will be desirable to have them thoroughly dried by heat, so as to render the chaff brittle, it will then crumble away on being rubbed between the finger and thumb, and leave the seed clean and fit for examination. Damping the * A farmer in this neighbourhood sowed several acres with grass, and, to his vexation, the land became covered with the Lychnis Dioica, or Campion, which cost him considerable trouble and loss. He has since expended some twenty guineas in the purchase of a first class microscope, and affirms that this would not have happened if he had previously owned the microscope, adding that it " cer- tulnhj would never happen again." B 2 4 The Use of a Simple Microscope. seeds after they have thus been dried will sometimes render the plump ones more conspicuous. " Doctored " seed ranks as one of the impurities comprised Avithin the first division. When scalded seed has been mixed with choice varieties of turnip-seed, a practised eye will be able to detect thein on carefully examining the hilum or germ of the seed, which is killed by the treatment. In the case of over-year turnip seed that has been " renovated " in the oven, a similar examination will be likely to expose the deception. If trefoil seeds have been " oiled," or shaken in a greasy bag, dust \yill be found sticking to the surface (especially if a little dust be shaken over them), which is not the case when they possess only their own natural gloss. The bulk of the seed is made up of farina or starch, and gluten. The latter, when soaked in cold water, swells so that the grain may easily be crushed, or cut into thin slices, so as to show its internal structure. The quantity of starch-cells and their quality may thus be readily observed, and the quality of the grain or seed judged of by its richness in starch grains. The embryo, which lies at the depression called the scar, the spot at which growth commences, should be carefully examined, as seed that has begun to sprout from damp, and has then been checked, is wholly useless for sowing. The hilum or scar is the spot at which it is attached to the seedpod or recep- tacle, and where the nourishment enters it from the coverings or seed vessel. When the seed is fully ripened, it separates of itself, and a cicatrix is formed which offers a distinctive indica- tion that the seed has been matured. It is also at this spot that the moisture enters when the seed swells preparatory to growth, and also where the first sprouts of the future plant protrude. The state of this cicatrix, whether it be minute and perfect, or has been enlarged and^ shrivelled, are the points to be examined, and a comparison of good dry seed with some that has been sprouted and then dried, will show most clearly in Avhat this difference of appearance consists. With respect to " feeding-stuffs," it will be far more difficult to obtain satisfactory results than with seeds, because these substances being crushed or ground, the particles, altlwwjh admitting of recognition hy a practised ei/e, do not present so marked a difference. In the coarser kinds, the inagnifying lens may serve to detect well-known bodies, but the medium powers of the compound microscope will be needed in most cases. The material if solid, as oilcake, should be broken down into a coarse powder, and a portion examined both dry, as an opaque object, and in water, as a semi-transparent one. A piece of oil- cake broken small, and placed in a basin, should have a quantity The Use of a Simple Microscope. 5 of hot water poured upon it, which after a short time may be strained off, leaving- the husks and coarser parts for examination. The shining exterior of the flax seed will be conspicuous, and contrast greatly with the dull husk of the cotton-seed, while the farina of each may be learned by practice. Dr. Arthur Hill Hassall, in his work on ' Adulterations Detected,' observes that " the microscope is specially suited to the detection of organised structures or substances, and that by its means one kind of root, stem, or leaf may generally be distinguished from another, one kind of starch or flour from another, one kind of seed from another, and so on ... . The seeds even belonging to different species of the same genus may frequently be dis- tinguished from each other by the microscope, a point in some cases of very great importance." To show the importance of such discrimination, the following instance may be cited : " Some cattle were fed with rape-cake, and died with symptoms of inflam- mation of the stomach and bowels. Nothing of a poisonous nature could be detected on analysis, but it was suspected the cake might be adulterated with mustard husks, although even this point could not be clearly established by chemical research. Under these circumstances the cake was sent to the author (Dr. Hassall) for examination, who had but little difficulty in ascer- taining that it was adulterated with mustard seed, which, from the large quantity consumed, was doubtless the cause of the fatal inflammation. So great and manifest are the differences revealed by the microscope in different vegetable substances, that with ordinary care and some amount of preliminary knowledge, the discrimination becomes a matter of the greatest ease and the most absolute certainty." Manuees. The microscope will scarcely enable any inexperienced observer to learn much of the composition or quality of manure, although with practice much may undoubtedly be done. The inorganic bodies, such as sand and ashes, may readily be seen. Any organic substance, as sawdust, or other vegetable offal, may also be de- tected ; and if a portion be washed in a very small quantity of boiling water, and a drop or two of this solution then suffered to dry on a glass slide, the peculiar salt or salts may be learned by their form, as every particular salt, or combination of salts, has its specific configuration and arrangement, which by the aid of the polariscope will at once become apparent. A knowledge of the form and characters of these salts is, of course, implied in such an investigation. Blood, fish-offal, and other similar sub- stances may likewise be made out by careful manipulation. G Tlie Use of a Simple Microscope. The genuineness of guano may also be learned through the presence of certain flinty remains of organic bodies, which are peculiar to the different deposits. Straw of wheat, oats, grass, and many other vegetables, contain certain arrangements of flint in their substance that are left entire after all vegetable matter has become decomposed and washed away. These flinty and imperishable remains of vegetable organisms that have existed in the sea, and have either served directly as food for the pen- guins, or previously filled the stomachs of fishes and molluscs on which they have preyed, being deposited with the excrement which forms the guano beds, are the characteristic features of the best guanos. Says a late eminent Professor, "When examined microscopically, a great abundance of beautiful silicious skeletons of diatomacece are found amongst it ; and curiously enough, the best samples of guano contain the greatest number of these remains, which," says the late Professor Quekett, " were first detected by my late brother in 1845." * " Now when we con- sider," says the same writer," the vast amount of silica that must be removed from the soil with the straw of wheat, barley, oats, and other grasses, it must be evident that a supply of this substance ought to be restoi'ed to the soil to insure good crops ; hence it follows that the value of good guano as a manure may depend not entirely upon its ammonia, lime, and potash, but in a certain degree also upon the silica it contains." It is not improbable that the superiority of farmyard manure may depend very greatly upon the silica that the hay, corn, and straw contain, which is hut sparingly appropriated by the animal. It may also arise from a deficiency of silica that the straw of corn is often weak, and breaks down under the weight of the ear. The exterior surface of straw, canes, &c., derive their fine polish, as well as their strength, from a layer of flint, as may be proved by boiling them in nitric acid. For the process of obtaining these remains from guano, and the flint from the stalks and leaves of plants, &c,, the reader is referred to the valuable little work of Mr. Davies on the " pre- paring and mounting objects for the microscope," t which is a complete manual on the subject at a small cost. For an exami- nation of these silicious remains the J-inch or \ of an inch object-glass will be required, and a very accurate adjustment of the light must be obtained to bring out their very beautiful patterns in a satisfactory way. Of sand, loam, turf-ashes, and * Quekett's ' Histology,' vol. i. p. 59. t 'The Preparation and Mounting of Microscopic Objects,' pp. 151, by Thomas Davies. 8vo., 2s. 6d. Hardwicke. rhe Use of a Simple Microscope. 7 other such like additions, there will be little difficulty in detect- ing the presence, by a little practice.* Disease, as Affecting the Roots, Stems, or Leaves OF Plants. It may be considered a rare circumstance to find any one of these parts affected in any way by disease not arising from local injury, without at the same time the whole plant being out of health. We are apt to consider the pulling off a diseased leaf, or the cutting out a withered stem a sufficient remedial treat- ment, but were the rootlets to be examined microscopically it would soon be seen that something here too was wrong. It is an important question open for investigation whether all diseased formations in plants do not commence with an abnormal action at the tips of the rootlets, due to some change within the soil itself, such as undue dryness, sudden accession of a super- abundance of moisture, the application of stimulating manure, either too strong, or applied when the plant is not in a condition to receive it. The moral of this is that the moment anything may be seen to be going wrong, let the rootlets be at once care- fully examined, and a note made of the condition of the soil at the time, as to openness, compactness, or dryness, as also of the treatment which the land may have received just previous to the discovery. An admirable paper on the growth of the wheat plant, by the Hon. and Rev. Lord Sidney Godolphin Osborne, is published in the ' Transactions of the Micro- scopical Society for 1857,' in which this subject is very fully treated ; it is illustrated with drawings of the various parts of the roots and rootlets in their different states and stages, and is well worthy the careful attention of the agriculturist. The experiments were performed in many ways, the plants growing in various materials, and with different kinds of solid and fluid manures, under the higher powers of the microscope (from the ^ inch to the -i- inch), and the actual process of growth was thus witnessed, and its actions noted. "The general conclusion," observes the author, " at which I have aiTived is, that though what I call the epidermic plasm does absorb moisture from the soil — in fact, requires moisture to preserve its elasticity, com- bining in the formative matter it secretes some of the matters presented to it, in whatever medium it may grow — still the great * Mr. Norman, of Hull, •well known both as a naturalist and a merchant, \eho has especially studied diatomacese, ■writes, " A little experience will soon show, that whereas certain forms of diatomacea; are peculiar to the Peruvian, other species are only detected in the Bolivian ; while Ichaboe, Californian, Saldanah Bay, and Patagonian guanos contain forms which indicate their former habitats with unerring certainty." — P. H. F. . 8 The Use of a Simple Microscoj^c. sources of plant health and strength are obtained by means of the capsules or spongioles, the termini of every root and rootlet, and also by the absorbent cells ever found at the extremities of the numberless suckers ; for it is at these points that I find the cell-structure very greedily taking in whatever foreign matter 1 have succeeded in introducing into the media in which 1 have grown the plants. The action of anything placed in the medium in which plants grow which is injurious to them, is at once shown by its action upon their roots and lateral processes, the capsules losing many of the characteristics of healthy action. . . . There can be no doubt but that the plant requires not only certain chemical constituents to secure its health, but that these must be offered to it when growing in a medium, allowing the utmost freedom to the capsules of the roots, rootlets, and to the suckers I am satisfied a highly pulverised poor soil would grow better plants than a close, hard, tenacious soil, however fertilised." It is, then, to the terminal points of the roots and rootlets that the inquirer's attention must be directed, and for this pur- pose the microscope is invaluable, as affording at a cheap rate that information which obtained in the field on a large scale becomes a costly experiment.. The discovery of a patch of fungus upon the leaf or stem of a plant must not be taken for a cause of injury to the plant; it generally only indicates a want of vital action, and is the con- sequence of decaying organic matter. Fungi are rarely, if ever, found on healthy surfaces, but it is a law of nature that nothing stands still ; if a plant be growing freely and healthily, it holds its own, and no sporadic fungi find a location, but the moment vital action flags or ceases, either from decreased vital energy, or from local injury, a lower order of vegetation instantly com- mences to obtain a sway. Mildew generally shows itself after a season of active growth, followed by an inequality in the supply of moisture from the soil and from the atmosphere. In other words, when from drought but little moisture finds its way into the system through the medium of the roots, such amount being insufficient to maintain a full and active circulation icithin the plant, and when the vital action thus becomes sluggish, the dews and damp of the night air overbalance it, and the germination and growth of fungi then commences. Fungi are known to be rapidly developed during and imme- diately after a thunderstorm, owing, it is supposed, to the nitro- genous compounds formed in the air, as a result of these elec- trical discharges. Hence upon this hypothesis the application of a stimulus to the roots should take place whenever any exces- sive stimulus is being derived from the atmosphere. Growth The Use of a Simple Microscope. 9 accelerated by means of artificial stimulants should be gradually attained, and as gradually reduced, care being taken to maintain a healthy action during- the season of comparative rest, and to maintain an even balance of root action and atmospheric stimulus. The cell-structure of vegetable growth should be carefully studied, as the "cell" is the fundamental unit, by a repetition of which even the largest forms are constructed, and hence the life of the cell is the life of the plant, and death of a part may be followed by the death of the whole, unless a sufficient amount of reaction can be started. The " mycelium " of a fungus may sometimes be traced running through every part of a plant, and under these circum- stances the death of the plant invariably follows. It may some- times be traced only in the bark, or the epidermis, and then be of less consequence. In these investigations the higher powers of the microscope, as well as some acquaintance with the cha- racter and habits of the parasitic fungi are indispensable.* But the roughness or scabbiness of roots and stems is often caused by other than fungous growths ; it sometimes arises from injuries inflicted by the puncture or 'presence of insects — the larvae of flies and beetles ; at other times it may be produced by some injurious and irritating cause connected with the soil. A small transverse slice cut very thin by means of a sharp razor, and examined in water between two pieces of glass, will show the disposition of the cells both healthy and injured, and how far the latter extend, or are con- nected with the general structure. Transverse sections of the leaves taken through a diseased spot, and examined edgewise, show also to what extent the cells of a leaf may be affected by disease. The leaf itself is an important study, and requires some little amount of patient investigation to be thoroughly understood, but without this knowledge it is utterly impossible for any one to appreciate the exquisitely beautiful and delicate offices it has to perform, and the means by which its functions are carried on. StauCH-CELLS. — If a very thin slice from the interior of a healthy potato be placed between two pieces of glass, squeezed out, and then examined with a magnifying glass, there will be seen an infinite number of little oval shining bodies of many different sizes. These are starch-cells, and should form almost * A knowledge of these may be acquired by the aid of M. C. Cooke's ' Plain and Easy Guide to the Study of Microscopic Fungi.' 8vo., coloured figures, piiee G.S. Hardwicke. 10 The Use of a Simple Microscope. the entire bulk of tlie tuber, as may be seen from the following sketch, while the diagram by the side of it shows the condition Fig. 1. — Healthy Potato, showing starch in situ. Fig. 2.— Diseased Potato, showing absence of starch. of a diseased tuber in which the starch is wholly wanting, indi- cating the absence of the power of forming starch as one of the features of the disease. An examina- tion of the tuber at many different stages during the growth of the plant may lead to a better knowledge of the means of promoting healthy growth. The annexed figure shows a portion of diseased potato with the mycelium of a fungus permeating it in all directions. Starch in wheat differs from that of the potato in outward appearance, and is similarly liable to variation in quan- Fig. 3.— Diseased Potato, with fungns. tlty and quality. The following diagram (from Que- kett's ' Histology ') shows the relative sizes of different kinds of starch, and also a cell of rhubarb filled with starch-grains in situ. Wheat-starch is peculiar in having a number of large, and almost round cells interspersed with a great number of smaller ones of very different appearance, and some few intermediate in size. The large ones are flattened, but the smaller ones are somewhat globose or elongated. The granules of oat-starch are compressed like the larger granules of wheat-starch, but have a slight tendency to being angular, although they have no external markings. The starches of the dicotyledonous plants — such as beans, peas, vetches, &c. — have a peculiar character quite different from the preceding forms. Those of beans are large, Avith an indented outline, as if about to divide into three or more globular granules. Tlie Use of a Simple Microscope. 11 The starch of peas has the same general character as that of the bean, but is smaller, and has a deeper central furrow, from which the indentations appear to spring. Fig. i,—a. Wheat starch. &. Sago meal. c. Rice starch, d. Potato starch, e. Tous les mois. g. Khubarb cells, containing starch. From these characteristics it will be easy to determine whether wheaten flour has peas or beans ground up with it. A small portion moistened with water and spread thinly between two glasses is all the preparation needed. To obtain the starch from beans, peas, oats, maize, or millett, &c. &:c., these should be soaked in cold water until soft, and then a small portion scraped or sliced may be treated as above. Arrowroot, sago, tapioca, oatmeal, &;c., all afford characteristic forms of starch, and should be closely studied. Starch may also be obtained from numerous other sources among the roots and bulbs ordinarily grown for agricultural or domestic purposes, and as the value of all starch-forming growth necessarily depends upon the quantity and quality of the starch-cells produced, the influence exerted on this growth by various agencies is important. Textile FabeiCS. — In the investigation of textile materials the microscope has been found of incalculable advantage. " At a recent meeting of the Quekett Microscopical Club a paper was read on the application of the microscope to the discrimination of vegetable fibres, to point out what had been done, what re- mained to be accomplished, and to suggest the best mode of per- 12 The Use of a Simple Microscope. forming it. Altliough adulterations of food have been carefully investigated, adulterations or admixtures in fabrics, whether of animal or vegetable origin, have hitherto obtained but little attention. A et, it is urged, the subject is an important one, and well deserving systematic research. "All fibres employed for commercial purposes may be divided into four classes, two of which are animal — i.e. wool and silk — and two vegetable, which may be termed vascular."* The first representation is that of cotton (a), Fig. b.f The fibre of cotton is a cellular hair, which may be recognised by its forming a flat and slightly twisted band with apparently thickened edges. " Very important investigations on this subject have been com- menced in Manchester," and the question is asked " Are there really any distinguishable microscopic differences between Sea Island and Egyptian, New Orleans and African, or between Brazilian and Surat ? " Wool (b) has a peculiar structure, readily to be distinguished from all other animal and vegetable fibres, and differing slightly Fig. 5— a. Cotton, h. Wool. c. Silk. in its own varieties, as may be seen by reference to a paper on " Hairs." :j: To this peculiar scaly structure that wool possesses so * Ilardwicke's 'Science Gossip,' No. I. vol. ii. p. 10, 'a Monthly IMedium of Interchange and Gossip for Students and Lovers of Nature,' price 4d. This pub- lication contains much varied and trustworthy information, that would prove serviceable to the farmer. t To Dr. Forbes Watson we are indebted for the use of the blocks which illus- trate this part of the subject. X ' Science Gossip,' vol. i. p. 29. The Use of a Simple Microscope. 13 strongly, is due the property of " felting," and by tlie extent to which this character is developed in different hairs their value for the purpose is regulated. Thus, In the examination of wools, this feature should be noted, as well as the coarseness or fineness of the fibre, its length and density. The peculiar markings which characterize wool in all its varieties, afford a safeguard against the possible admixture of other materials. Important evidence as to the effects of various disorders due to keep, climate, or mismanagement, as also on the influence which special kinds of food, or even the various " sheep dips " exert upon the fleece may be confidently anticipated from such inves- tigations — results which will have an important bearing on the commercial value of \vool. Silk (c) is more uniform in character, and its several varieties are not readily, if at all, distinguishable. Flax. — Fig. 6 (a). "Vascular fibres are derived either from the inner bark (the liher) of the exogenous, or the vascular bundles of the leaves of endogenous plants. The most important of these Fig. G.— a. Flax. h. Juto. fibres is flax, obtained from the Limim iisitatissimuvi, or common flax plant. This possesses a variable market value, according to the climate or country of production. It is natural to inquire whether the microscope can detect differences between Irish and Belgian, or between Egyptian and Spanish flax." Jute (h) has now become an article of extensive use, and its fibre, which is an "adulterant" in extensive use, can always be readily detected. It has a rough outline, and is much more 14 The Use of a Simple Microscope. opaque tlian flax ; it lias no definite cross-markings, and the cells frequently terminate in a tongue-like shape. Fig. 1. — a. Chinese nettle, h. Neilgberry nettle, c. Bcdulec. Fig. 7 (Z»). Neilgherry nettle has been recommended as a substitute, or for admixture with wool. A comparison of the figures (5 h and 7 h) will prove that such an admixture could readily be detected. Fig. 8. — a. Baiiala. h. Ambarec. c. IMudar. The Use of a Simple Microscope. 15 Fig. 9. — a. Paissian hemp. 6. Himalayan hemp. c. Italian hemp. Hemp. — The true hemp, Cannabis sativa, is well known ; and Fig. 9 represents the microscopic appearance of three varieties : the Russian, Himalayan, and Italian. They are not unlike flax, except as to tlie transverse markings, which in hemp are usually defective, and, when present, less decided. It is difficult to dis- tinguish some fine samples of hemp from flax. ri„ 10 — Slum, Jitec Dunchec Jetee yields the Rajmahal bowstring-hemp, a fibre much valued for its tenacity. 16 The Use of a Simple Microscope. We come now to the second group of vascular fibres, namely, those afforded by endogenous plants, of which the most important is that afforded by the pine-apple. Under the microscope they Fig. 11.— a. Pine-apple. Z). New Zealand flax. c. Manilla hemp. have a somewhat opalescent, glass-like appearance, and are very refractive. New Zealand flax (Pho7'nmim tenax) has a peculiar flossy appearance under the microscope. Manilla hemp, the produce of a species of plantain, presents but little variation from other endogenous fibres, except by the presence of distinct cross-markings. Cocoa-nut coir and Ejoo (Fig.l2) are sufficiently distinct to render description unnecessary. It will be seen that the difference between cotton, wool, silk, cocoa-nut fibre, ejoo, jute, and flax, is of so marked a character as to be readily distinguishable even by the veriest tyro, but the diagrams representing Chinese nettle, Neilgherry nettle, bariala, and the hemps, show that the difference between them is less marked ; in such cases where the difference depends more on texture of the surface, tint, or degree of opacity, than on the outline and configuration of the object, illustrations will afford less assistance ; yet such distinctions are readily appre- ciable by the eye from the object itself under microscopic examination ; and hence it is that a careful examination of the objects themselves is absolutely essential for acquiring a sound knowledge of any particular subject. In the case of seeds, &c., where size, shape, and marking, always present the same appearances, there is little to confuse, The Use of a Simple Microscope. 17 bat where, as In the case of the above textile materials, no two pieces can be found sufficiently similar in outline to be mis- Fig. 12. — a. Cjcoa-nut coir. h. Ejoo. ^^ taken for each other, or where substances are broKen up Into irregularly formed masses, these require to be studied with regard to the general form and character of the masses ; as, for instance, whether they possess angular or rounded edges, or any particular direction for breaking up, or whether they are rough or smooth, dull or shining in the fracture, opaque or transparent. All or any one of these features may constitute the distinctive characters of a given substance, therefore particular attention should be directed to them ; and, when these have been determined, diagrams may be employed to assist the memory ; but it Is very desirable that the objects themselves should be preserved for future examina- tion and reference. The IMagnifytng Glass or Microscope. The construction of the magnifying glass, or microscope, varies according to the use for which it is intended ; but the essential part consists of a highly polished piece of very clear glass, termed *■' a lens," which has one or more curved surfaces ; an ordinary spectacle glass may be taken as the simplest form of a common magnifier of very low power : a sphei-e of glass, or of any other transparent substance, being the highest magnifier that can be obtained by one single piece. Thus, the more convex it is, the shorter Is its focus', or in other words, the closer must the object and the eye be placed, to obtain a distinct vision, and conse- quently the more the object is magnified. The perfection that has been of late years attained in the construction of the microscope VOL. III. — S. S. C 18 The Use of a Simple Microscojoe. lias been effected by using a number of different pieces of glass of different qualities combined together, so as to do away with imper- fections natural to a lens formed of one single piece of glass only. Lenses are mounted as common hand magnifiers, in tortoishell frames, folding up for the pocket. These contain from one to three glasses of different powers, so arranged as to be used singly or combined ; and a set. Fig 13, consisting of one-and-a-half inch, one inch, and half-inch focus, will be found very generally useful. In addition to its use as a hand magnifier, Messrs. Smith, Beck, and Beck provide a stand, by which it can be made into a simple, but very useful, single microscope, as shewn in the accompanying illustration taken from their catalosrue. Fig. 14. When a higher power is required in a single lens, the Stanhope and Coddington (so named after their inventors) are sometimes had recourse to, they are mounted in metal case for the waist- coat-pocket or watch- ffuard. The Use of a Simple JSIicroscope. 19 The disadvantage of small glasses of short focus is that they have to be held close to the eye, and the object close to the glass, Avhich causes a degree of strain to the eyes that is both disagreeable and dangerous to the eyesight. These, however, are now almost" wholly superseded by the com- pound microscope, wherein this defect is entirely overcome. A much greater additional advantage is also gained by substi- tuting the latter for the sim/le magnifier. When the utility of the magnifying-glass has been once found out, it almost in- variably leads to a craving for greater power, so as to obtain a still further enlargement and better view of the object under examination. The principle of the single glass does not admit of any very great increase of this magnifying power, while with the compound arrangement the limit of the enlargement is, as yet, scarcely known, and as now constructed, modern achro- matic instruments* are so contrived as to provide the highest as well as extremely low powers. Since the common hand lens can be of but very limited use to ihe farmer, and is wholly inadequate to most of the purposes for which he ought to apply it, and as the manufacture of more per- fect instruments has been brought to a great degree of perfection, at such comparatively small cost as to place them within the means of nearly every student, it has been deemed desirable to advert to their con- struction. With a simple magnifying lens the ob- ject itself is seen through the glass. Not so, however, with the compound micro- scope. A convex lens has the property of forming a picture of any object presented to it, at some specified distance on its op- posite side ; thus in the annexed diagram the picture B is so much larger than A, the object itself, as the distance is greater between B and C (the lens) than between A and C. In the compound microscope, it is not the object itself, but this greatly enlarged picture, B, that is seen, being again magnified by another single lens ; thus its twofold action of enlargement gives it a claim to be termed " com- Fig. i6. pound." * Instruments having their imperfections corrected, although more strictly ■' without colour." c 2 20 The Use of a Simple Microscope. The marginal figure shews how this effect is accomplished in the arrangement known as the " body" of the instrument. ^ The object, A, being properly placed, and I : , sufficient light thrown upon it, an enlarged I ,<^.3sHJ picture of it is seen at B. The large lens '^ '^ just below this picture is termed the field lens, because it regulates the rays of light forming the picture, while the topmost or eye-glass is merely a single magnifying lens, through Avhich the picture B is seen and further enlarged. The distance of B from the eye- glass is regulated by moving the object (A) nearer to, or farther from the lens, which is termed the "object glass" just above it. The lenses which are thus employed to produce the picture of the object, are mounted in combinations for each power, each set being contained in a separate brass fitting, which screws on at the lower end of the tube, and great care must be taken not to displace or get these soiled by the fingers. The quality of a microscope depends greatly upon the qua- lity of its object-glasses, and these are very often purchased separately — a series of two or three being generally required — a 1-inch and ^-inch where 2 only are used ; a 2-inch or 1^, a |.rd or i-inch, and a i or ^ where 3 ; and ith added where a higher power still is desired. The simple magnifier which is then used to enlarge the picture in the eye is termed the eye- piece, the form represented in the upper por- tion of Fig. 17, and again in Fig. 18, two or three sizes of which are generally supplied ^| |j=jr= -' with the best microscopes. The upper glass of L ; . L this must be carefully wiped whenever the in- strument is used, as dust, and damp from the eye tend to render it misty. All additional arrangements of a microscope are with a view to facilitate the proper placing and illuminating of the object to be seen, to- gether with the measurement of its length, breadth, and thickness. Different magnifying powers are obtained by changing the lower lens or object glass, a series of which is represented in Fig, 18, and also by substituting shorter, that is, Fig. IT. The Use of a Simple Mia'oscope. 21 liiglier mag-nifying eyepieces, two of which are also shown in the same figure. A cheap but strong and effective form of microscope has been introduced under the title of "Student's," and these are now sold by opticians at from 2 or 3 to 5 or 6 guineas. In most of these, strength and real usefulness has been more considered than high finish and unnecessary ornamentation, and for ordinary use they answer every purpose. A very ingeniously contrived " pocket" microscope has re- cently been introduced by Mr. Moginie, at Mr. C. Baker's, which is cheap as well as portalDle (Fig 19). The most valuable invention of modern times in relation to the microscope is the "Wenham Binocular" (Fig 20). The use of one eye only at a time (which the common microscope involved) was 22 The Use of a Simple Microscope. found to be injurious to the sight, because the eye 720^ used always suffered more or less from the stimulus of light not being applied to it in the same manner and degree as to its companion. In the Binocular, as its name im- plies, both eyes are used, and the former drawback is over- come. The beam of light going from the object A to the picture B is divided by a glass prism placed half way across it, into two portions, one of which goes on as formerly, but the other is diverted and sent up a second tube attached to the first tube, forming a V, and thus two pictures, one for each eye, are formed and both eyes are stimulated equally. (See Fig 20). Next in importance to the optical part, or magnifying- glasses, is the stand, or frame- work carrying the glasses, by means of which the objects to be examined are held and adjusted for vision. Strength, steadiness, and free movement are essen- tial. Freedom from tremor is absolutely indispensible, for upon this depends much of the comfort in observing, as well as the possibility of seeing at all, with the higher powers, any vibration tending to render the object indistinct. One of the most substantial, and most complete is the No. 1a, stand of Mr. T. Ross (Fig 21), which for excellence of work- manship and elaborate finish is scarcely equalled. It was ori- ginally devised with the espe- cial aim of attaining steadiness and freedom from tremor, which it most effectually accomplishes. This is a large and massive as well as an expensive instrument, but where it can Fig. 20. TJie Use of a Simple Microscope. 23 be afforded it is an undoubted luxury. Most of the best of the cheaper kinds of stands are after this model, and those on a Fig. 21. Fig. smaller scale supplied by Mr. Ross, at a far more moderate cost, are excellent in every respect. One point requiring attention is the position of the axis of sus- pension upon which the swinging part is balanced. I say " balanced" because a good instrument is so adjusted that whatever be the position to which it may be inclined, it has no Tendency to move, but retains its balance. This is a point which many makers have overlooked, who produce stands that, when inclined back, require support to prevent their toppling over : it should be especially looked to when a selection for purchase is being made. Useful instruments for ordinary purposes are now made with a smaller amount of work, and consequently at a far less cost, such is the Ql. Binocular of Mr. Baker, as represented above (Fig. 22). In this, good and substantial workmanship has been combined with a tolerably well arranged suspension. 24 TIlc Use of a Simple Microscope. Another form of clieap stand has been devised by Messrs. Smith, Beck, and Beck, and styled by them the Popular Micro- scope, which has special merits (Fig. 23). Extreme" steadiness is obtained by supporting the lower end in a socket, and porta- bility, by its folding up. Its price is moderate — that is, from 10/. to 15Z. or 20/., proportionate to the amount of apparatus supplied with it, all of which is of excellent workmanship. Another cheap, and very convenient, binocular and polarizing microscope, invented by Dr. Lawson, has been brought out by The Use of a Simple Microscope. 25 Mr. Collins, in which the contrivances for shifting the object- glasses and attaching the polarizing prism greatly facilitate use, and lessen the time and trouble generally taken up in attaching and changing glasses (Fig. 24). The peculiar eye-douche-like form of the caps of the eye-pieces, being of ivory, and forming a side screen to the eyes, is Avell worthy of being generally adopted. Many objects that are too delicate to exhibit their structure under ordi- nary light, become richly and beautifully coloured when seen with polarized light, and are then easily made out. Manv animal and vegetable substances are remarkable for this property, but most, if not all, forms of lime in its crystallized state are thus readily now detected. No instrument is considered complete without its po- larizing apparatus, and the facility with which this can be adjusted, in the pre- sent form, renders it a very desirable addition. There are many other makers of good instruments, but sufficient has been said to point out the chief merits of such instruments, in a graduated series ranging in price from the lowest to the highest and most elaborately finished, so as to suit the means or inclination of different persons,* All the better class of instruments are now so constructed, that by obtaining a n-ell-made stand in the first instance, which would be the most politic proceeding, any additional portions may be added at any time afterwards when required ; and by the adoption of a uni- versal screw, the object-glasses of all makers fit into any maker's instrument. With respect to object glasses but little has been said, as it is always desirable to obtain the advice of, or to leave the selection to, an experienced microscopist. It should, however, be observed Fig. 24. We are indebted to the various makers for the use of the blocks employed. 26 Tlie Use of a Simple Microscope. that loicness of cost does not imply cheapness, and should he one of the last things thought of in purchasing a microscope, as a certain amount of (jood loorkmanskij) is absolutely indispensable, and a stand lacking this, would after a very short time become useless. Hints to Students. When an instrument has been selected, the next step will be to learn how to use it. There is one thing which must be constantly borne in mind from the very first, which is never to touch the fjlasses ivith the jingers, nor to wipe them with anything hard or rough : they should be brushed with a dry cainel-hair pencil when dusty, but when they require to be wiped, this should be done with a piece of clean and very soft washleather, kept on purpose, and carefully wrapped up from dust when not in use. The use of the various pieces of apparatus will be best learned by obtaining a half-hour's instruction from an old hand. The method of observing must be gained by practice after the student has been put into the right way. It is a well known fact that persons not accustomed to observe minutely see nothing distinctly on first looking into a micro- scope — that is, although they may see the whole contour of the object presented, they take only a general view of it, and are not impressed with any special definite fact, such as could be referred to from memory afterwards, as a distinctive character- istic. There is the greatest difference possible between seeing and observing. Seeing is the rule, and observing the exception. Place a piece of lichen-covered stone or wood in the hands of a dozen different persons, and it is more than probable that not one of them, ten minutes afterwards, would be able to say whether it was red, blue, yellow, or green. Now, it is this habit of observing minutely and attentively, Avhether it be with the common eye-glass or with the highest powers of the microscope, that is the first step to be attained. Some particular feature should be looked for, such as external shape, roughness or smoothness of surface, colour or peculiarity in form of markings, &c., &c,, and afterwards the same features should be looked for in other kindred bodies, and the differences noted arid ivritten down if possible. By so comparing objects one with another, and looking out for minute and trifling differences of structure, the faculty of observing — of detecting slight distinctions and of taking in, almost at a single glance, all the leading features of an object — may be rapidly gained if set about in the right manner. When once it has become a habit, a solid foundation is laid for reliable results to be drawn from subsequent investigations. A careless and faulty The Use of a Simple Microscope. 27 habit has too often led to the propagation of erroneous statements, and the only safe way of learning is by a careful studi/ of objects themselves as the preliminary step, any reference to drawings or engravings being reserved for after comparison and verification. Always bring the object to be thus studied into the centre of the field of view. The best practice is to commence upon any common objects that may be met with, such as seeds, sand, table-salt, »Scc,, examining them separately at first, and then mixing them so as to obtain a view of several objects together. Portions of the flowers and leaves of plants afford an almost unceasing fund of instruction, whether in their healthy or diseased state. It is always desirable to obtain first Avith a low magnifier, a good general idea of the structure or composition of any object before submitting it to higher powers, and to increase the enlargement by degrees — using first an inch-and-a-half object- glass, then a two-thirds or half-inch, a quarter-inch, &;c., as required. To facilitate the changing of these object-glasses, and to prevent the loss of time that would arise from having to screw each one off and on separately each time a different power is required, a contrivance called a " double nose-piece " is very often had recourse to. This consists of two arms attached to the lower part of the body of the instrument, having one power attached to each end, and, being made to turn on its centre, either one may be brought into its place by merely causing the arms to describe one-half of a circle, and thus either power may be changed for the other in a few seconds. Treble and quad- ruple nose-pieces are also made, but are not so commonly used as that which carries two powers only, the lower power serving also to "find" the object for the higher one. It is important to have a microscope always ready for use at a moment's notice. Fig. 24 is shown as fixed down upon a board having a circular groove intended to admit the rim of a glass shade, which, together with a piece of wash-leather thrown over the eye-pieces, would be a sufficient protection from dust, and only require lifting off to leave the instrument fit for use. A wooden cover, or a bag made of glazed calico, might be adopted as an inferior substitute. The diseases of plants are so intimately associated with the laws of vegetable life that a superficial acquaintance with the ordinary external appearance of disease in either roots, stems, or leaves, cannot be of the slightest avail unless something be known of the principles of vegetable physiology — i.e. of the structure and function of the several parts of the plant in their " normal," or natural and healthy state. To acquire this know- 28 The Use of a Simple Microscope. ledge, diligent use of the compound microscope is indispensable, accompanied by some work on histology or vegetable physiology as a guide to the mode of investigation. Diseases are also supposed to be produced by fungi, such as mildew, rust, &c., but these growths are rather indicative of dis- ease elsewhere. When the normal condition of the cell struc- ture, of the root fibres, leaf-cells, and other parts of the plant are known, the mycelium of these fungi may be recognised and sometimes traced all through the structure. To comprehend the nature and arrangement of these fungous pests of vegetable life every part of the plant should be carefully examined for their presence. The structure of the leaves also bears a marked significance as to the mode of treatment plants ought to receive ; the hairs and glands upon their surface, the stomata on one or both sides, are all con- nected with the laboratory within the substance, and have their respective functions to perform, any cessation of which becomes the precursor of disease. Portions of the upper or under skin of the leaf may be stripped off with a sharp knife and placed wet between glasses so as to be ready for examination. The internal structure of the leaf is best seen by taking a very thin section by means of a razor across the thickness of the leaf, and thus getting an edgewise view of it and the hairs, &c., which are connected with it. Sections made with a sharp razor may be taken from all parts of the plant so as to afford a considerable amount of knowledge of its peculiar structure. Dry and hard seeds, such as peas and beans, «Scc., after being thoroughly softened in water, may likewise have thin slices shaved off in the same manner. For the method of preserving these and other substances the reader is referred to the before- mentioned manual of Mr. Davies on mounting, »S:c. All small seeds may be preserved in a very simple manner when required only for reference. Take a strip of any common card, or stiff paper, cut to 1 inch wide and 3 inches long, which is the standard size of microscopic object-slides. In the centre of this put a little thick gum, or thin flour-paste, and drop on it a heap of the clean dry seeds, and after a few minutes shake off all that are loose ; put aside till thoroughly dry, and, if preserved from dust and damp, they may be kept for years. A collection should be made of the seeds of all common weeds, but more especially of those that are particularly obnoxious or injurious to crops or pasture. All materials such as wool, hair, vegetable fibres, starch, pollen, very minute seeds, or dust of any kind, if required dry, may lie preserved between two pieces of glass fastened together by paper pasted upon them ; but these are more commonly first TJie Use of a Simple Microscope. 29 soaked in turpentine and then covered with Canada balsam, for the manner of doing which directions will be found in the ' Manual for Mounting,' &c. Specimens of various samples of linseed-cake, cotton-cake, rape-cake, &:c., after having been treated with hot water, should be put up either dry or in balsam, being at the same time very carefully labelled with date, name, and any particulars of manufacture, purchase, or effect in use, that may be connected with them. Samples of crushed seeds known to be unadulterated should be procured and preserved in the same way, as these afford the only reliable evidence of the respective characters of each, and will at once prove the presence of extraneous substances in manufactured cake. In the examination of seeds. Sic., and in the preparing sub- stances for examination under the microscope, it is mostly necessary to have the means of using the hands at the same time that the object is seen under a magnifying glass, and for this purpose the lens and holder. Fig. 14, may be used, but a con- venient form of stand called a dissecting microscope is provided on purpose, where every facility for manipulation has been studied. Dr. Lawson's Binocular Dissecting Microscope. The most recent and best contrivance is the above binocular dissecting microscope of Dr. Lavvson as made by Mr. Collins of Tichfield-street.* In this both eyes are used, which gives the object a more natural appearance, and, both hands being at liberty, objects may be separated from one another, and vegetable * See 'Science Gossip' for September 1, 1SG5, p. 201. so Changes v^Jdch take place in the Field substances pulled to pieces or cut up so as to obtain a clear insight into tbeir general formation. In putting up specimens for preservation some kind of mag- nifying glass is always needed. It is, however, in the preparing parts of objects, so as to be able to get a good view of the part required to be seen, that the dissecting stand is absolutely essen- tial ; for more perhaps depends upon the rightly displaying the object than in the after examination of it. Specimens of seeds and numerous other substances that would be found useful to the farmer for reference, may, for a very trifling sum, be purchased of the opticians, who are supplied b}" persons whose sole occupation consists in preparing and mount- ing objects for the microscope. These object -preparers will assuredly be ready to provide an ample supply of specimens to meet all the requirements of the farmer, should the microscope become generally resorted to, as it most probably will be at no A^ery distant day. II. — Oji the Changes luldcli take jilace in the Field and in the Stack in Haymaking. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker. If grass or clover could be made into hay without undergoing any change in composition, the hay, when made, would no doubt be found as valuable as the green food from which it was derived. Fi'om exposui'e to the broiling heat of the sun on a hot summer's day, cut grass or clover hardly lose anything else but water, neither do their constituents undergo material alterations if the grass is not much bruised, and the drying process takes place Avith sufficient rapidity. The green colour, sweet taste, and aromatic smell of well-made hay plainly show that such is the case, and that haymaking is not always or necessarily attended with serious loss of nutritive matter. I am aware, however, that many practical men maintain the opinion that grasses and clovers are less nutritious as hay than when consumed green : though this may be true as a matter of fact in nine cases out of ten, I conceive this is not a matter of necessity, but, f it were always practicable to resort to artificial means of desiccation, or to have under complete control the natural drying rocess in the field, no material loss would be experienced ; the green colour of grass Avould be preserved, nothing but water escape, and all the solid constituents remain behind in much the same state of combination in which they occur in the succulent produce of our grass-fields. No attempt has been made as yet to apply artificial drying and in tlie Stack in Haymaking, 31 processes to liaymaking on a large scale, and I question much Avhetlier, in ordinary' farm practice, it is worth while seriously to entertain suggestions for drying grass by artificial heat, dry currents of air, or the combined action of these two agents. The special question whether sewage grass grown in the im- mediate neighbourhood of large towns can be profitably made into hay by artificial means, remains yet to be solved. In ordinary farm practice haymaking, in a trying season like the last, will probably always be subject to more or less of waste in feeding substance ; it becomes us therefore to inquire how far the loss can be mitigated, if not avoided. To this end it will be useful to trace, somewhat in detail, the nature and extent of the injury which grass sustains in haymaking, since hitherto little has been done in this direction. Such losses are generally traceable : — 1. To prolonged showery weather after the grass has been cut, so that it ultimately gets wet and half-dried, and has to be moved frequently on the ground before it can be carted and stacked. 2. To bad management in the field, and subsequent heating in the stack. 3. To the mistake of cutting the produce either too early or too late in the season. Prognostications of the weather are, to say the least of them, very deceptive, and though the sun may be shining when the grass is cut, predictions as to the continuance of fine weather cannot be relied upon. Over one great cause of loss the farmer then has little or no control ; it is not so, however, with the two remaining causes ; though it is to be feared that injuries thus done to hay are too frequently put down altogether to bad weather. 1. — Unpropitious Weather during the Haymaking Season. Grass and clover, when ready to be cut down, contain a con- siderable quantity of sugar, gum, luucilage, albuminous and other soluble compounds, which are all liable to be washed away by heavy showers of rain. As long as grass is still quite fresh, rain falling upon it has little or no injurious effect, for fortunately a coating of waxy or fatty matter covers the epidermis, and wraps, so to speak, the whole vegetable matter in a waterproof mantle. Rain for this reason may fall for days on newly-cut grass without doing any injury to it ; but the case is very different if, by repeated turnings, the crop has become more or less bruised, and rain then descends upon the half-made hay : not only are sugar, gum, and other soluble matters then liable to be washed out, but the bruised state of the plants, admitting at least a partial diffusion of the various constituents through the 32 Changes irhich take place in the Field lacerated cell-walls, induces fermentation, whicli, if not checked at once, causes further loss. During the fermentation soluble albumen and sugar are destroyed — two of the most valuable elements of nutrition. In showery weather, grass recently cut should, for this reason, not be turned over more than is abso- lutely necessary, and under all circumstances it is desirable to handle the crop as lightly as possible, in order that it may not get much bruised. That the loss in our hay crop, under these circumstances, is at times great, scarcely admits of a doubt, and it is to be regretted that there are no experiments on record which exhibit in figures their exact amount. Instead of analytical results I am able, however, to give a practical illustration from the use of some clover hay which was made in very wet weather, in some experiments tried upon sheep. With a view of ascer- taining the practical feeding value of several articles of food, I supplied weighed quantities of different foods to six pens of Cotswold sheep, each containing four animals. To one of the pens nothing but this clover-hay, cut into chaff, was given. When first put up for experiment on the 9th November, the four sheep weighed respectively : — lbs. No. 1 96 „ 2 101 „ 3 99^ „ 4 93 Together .. .. 389^ During the first fortnight each sheep received 1 J lb. of clover- hay chaff per day, and care was taken to provide also fresh water. At the end of the fortnight the four sheep were put on the weigh-bridge, and then weighed : lbs. No. 1 95 » 2 100 „ 3 98^ » 4 9U Togetlicr .. .. 385 Finding that all four sheep had lost in weight I gave them, during the next fortnight, 2 lb. each per day. On the 7th of December they weighed : lbs. No. 1 94 „ 2 101 „ 3 98 „ 4 88 Together .. .. 381 and in the Stack in Haymaking. 33 Thus, notwithstanding the larger amount of food, the sheep had lost together 4 lbs. since the last weighing. Knowing that the clover-hay was made in wet weather, and long on the ground before it was carted and stacked, and having experimentally found a fair allowance insufficient to support the live weight of one sheep, I next gave them as much of the same hay as they would eat, and instead of cutting the clover into chaff as before, supplied it as taken from the stack. The food not consumed was weighed back each day, and found to consist mainly of the harder and less palatable stems of clover. From the 8th of December to the 14th, the four sheep ate 78|^ lbs. of clover; in the next week 79 lbs., and in the next 76 lbs. ; then 78|^ lbs. ; from the 4th of January to the 11th inclusive, they consumed 74 lbs., and in the following week 64^ lbs. ; then again 73^ lbs., then 63J lbs. ; and in the last experimental fortnight 76|- lbs. in one week, and 63 lbs. in the last. The periodical weighings of the four sheep are incorporated in the following: Table : — • Sheep. When put up for Experiment. Loss -. Nov. 9. Dec. 21. Jan. 4. Jan. 18. Feb. 1. Feb. 15. Gain +. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. No. 1 . . 96 95 93 94^ 95 96 .. „ 2 .. 101 100 100 102^ 105 105 + 4 „ 3 .. 99J 98 98 98i lUO 99 -01 „ 4 .. 93 89 85| m 87 87* -5i 389.1 382 376J 381 387 387J Total - 2 This experiment is interesting in two ways. It shows first the folly of supplying animals with bad hay alone, and proves secondly that clover-hay can get deteriorated by rain, long keeping and frequent turnings in the field, to such an extent that any amount which sheep will consume is barely sufficient to maintain their original weight. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have shown that sheep fed upon well-made hay alone, increase in weight. The experiment, it will be seen, was continued for a period of more than three months, and the weighings done by myself in person. These practical results illustrate more forcibly the serious injury to which clover is subject when made into hay under an unfavourable season, than any analytical data possibly can do. Having, however, made a partial analysis of the clover, I may as well point out its general composition. VOL. III. — S. S. D 34 Clianges which take place in the Field Composition of clover-hay injured by rain and badly made — Dried at 212° Fahr. Moisture .. .. 20-45 Nitrogenous organic matter .. 8-50 .... 10'69 Non-nitrogenous substances .. 64-27 .... 80-79 Mineral matter (asli) .. .. 6-78 .... 8*52 100-00 100-00 * Containing nitrogen .. .. 1*36 1*71 I regret that I did not determine at the time the percentage of woody fibre nor the amount of matters soluble in water. How- ever, the comparison of the preceding analysis with that of well- made clover-hay sufficiently indicates the very inferior character of the clover employed in the feeding experiments. On an average, good clover-hay contains : — Moisture 16-60 . ^Nitrogenous substances 15-81 Non-nitrogenous substances 60-00 Mineral matters (ash) 7-59 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 2-52 Although the percentage of nitrogen in food does not afford invariably the means of determining with anything like accuracy its relative feeding value, in the case of clover-hay a very low percentage of nitrogen always indicates inferior quality, for as the leaves and more succulent portions of clover are much richer in nitrogen than its hard stems, a small percentage of nitrogen shows that the more delicate, brittle, and more nutritious leaves have been wasted to a great extent in the process of haymaking. Compared with good clover-hay, the injured sample contained little more than half the amount of nitrogenous or flesh- forming matters, and was no doubt rich in indigestible woody fibre. 2. — Loss by lad Management in the Field, and subsequent Fer- mentation in the Stack. Although haymaking is a simple operation, yet experience and judgment is required to decide when to cut the grass, when to handle, and when to stack the hay. I have seen farmers spending labour in turning hay on over- cast days, on which a dew-point hygrometer showed the air to be nearly saturated with moisture, proving that evaporation could not possibly take place at the time, and rain might be expected at any moment. In such a state of the atmosphere it is not only and in the Stack in Haymaking. 35 useless, but positively injurious, to knock about lialf-made hay, for it tends to bruise it and to render it more liable to be attacked by the rain of which the barometer, or more decidedly the hygrometer, has given previous warning. Frequent turnings of half-made hay should be avoided, especially in the case of clover, when the finer and more nutritious parts, the small leaves, are particularly liable to be knocked off by clumsy handling. It is further well known that hay, when badly made in the field, loses subsequently in the stack both in weight and in quality ; but the nature of the changes which it undergoes when it heats or ferments in the stack are not so well understood ; it may, therefore, not be amiss to describe them as briefly as possible. Let me direct attention to a second analysis of good clover or meadow-hay, drawn up more in detail by Professor Way: — Average Composition of Clover-hay. Dried at 212° Fahr. Moisture 16-60 Fatty matters 3-18 .... 3-81 *Albumen and similar nitrogenous compounds) -,-qi iqop (flesh-forming matters) J io bi .... 1»-Jb Gum, sugar, mucilage and carbon hydrates readily j 04.4,9 4.-1 .97 convertible into sugar j "■ •'" ~ Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose) 22-47 .... 26-95 Mineral matter (ash) 7*52 .... 9-01 100-00 100-00 * Containing nitrogen ,. 2'53 .... 3'03 The preceding analysis represents the average of 75 varieties of clover, and a few other plants which are usually found amongst clover-seeds. Since these varieties differ much amongst them- selves, corresponding differences in composition must be looked for in clover-hay, according as one species or another prevailed in the field on which it grew ; the time of cutting will also much affect the result. The above figures, therefore, admit only of a general application. Clover-hay generally absorbs and retains a little more water than common meadow-hay under the same circum- stances, and when in good condition contains more sugar, gum, and analogous compounds than meadow-hay, from which, more- over, it is chiefly distinguished by a much larger proportion of nitrogenous or fleshforming matters. Taking the mean of twenty-five analyses of common meadow- hay, we obtain the following : — D 2 36 Chanyes icldch take place in the Field Average Cojnposition of Meadoic-Jiaf/. Dried at 212^ I'ubr. Moisture 14-Gl AVax and fatty matters 2-50 .... 2'99 *Albiimen and otlier nitrogenous compounds) q.aa q.qo (flesh-lbrming matters) j ' " ' ' Sugar, gum, starch and similar compounds (respi-) ,-. ,r.- 4Q-00 ratory substances) J Indigestible woody -tibre (cellulose) 27"16 .... ol'80 Mineral matter (ash) G-IG .... 7-24 100-00 100-00 * Containing nitrogen I*. 35 .... 1-58 Haj, whether produced from clover or natural grasses, evi- dently contains a good deal of ready formed sugar or soluble organic matter, having an analogous composition, and readily convertible under the influence of ferments, first into sugar and afterwards into alcohol and carbonic acid. These consti- tuents are essential elements in all liquids and moist substances capable of entering into fermentation. No less essential are albumen, gluten, and other nitrogenous compounds. Some of the nitrogenous matter in hay occurs in a soluble, some in a con- dition insoluble in water. Soluble albumen and all albuminous compounds exposed for a short time to air and moisture, are readily transformed into ferments, that is to say agents which play the same part as yeast in setting up fermentation in sugary coin- pounds. It appears that when a vegetable juice ferments, the admission of the air is necessary to the commencement of the change which then goes on, even if the air be afterwards excluded. Ferments almost invariably contain the germs of minute fungi, which become rapidly developed and multiplied in the measure in which the fermentation proceeds. Albuminous compounds that have been exposed for a short time to the influence of the air, as in ordinary ferments, are only capable of acting as indvicers of fermentation when in a state of decomposition. This explains satisfactorily why hay that has been subject to excessive fermen- tation generally is very innutritious, such a great loss of flesh- forming, as well as sugary constituents, being implied by fermentation. The most reasonable explanation of the fermentation of sugar has been given by Liebig. Ferments, the great German chemist says, being in a state of decomposition, have their constituent particles in a state of motion, and by communicating, mechani- cally, an impulse or motion to the particles of sugar, destroy the balance of affinities to which its existence is owing, and thus give rise to a new balance or equilibrium more stable under and in the Stack in Haymaking. 37 existing circumstances. The elementary particles of the sugar being disturbed in their previous arrangement, group themselves according to their individual affinities ; and while the carbon forms on one side, a compound containing all the hydrogen (alcohol) it yields, on the other a compound containing the greater part of the oxygen (carbonic acid). Alcoholic or vinous fermentation may thus be briefly de- . scribed as the breaking-up of sugar under the influence of ferments, and the reconstruction of the constituent elements of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. Another condition favourable to fermentation is an elevated temperature. If the thermometer ranges from 65° to 80° Fahr., fermentation proceeds with rapidity, whilst at a lower tempera- ture it goes on more slowly, and is stopped altogether at 32^ Fahr. In the absence of a sufficient amount of water many substances otherwise capable of entering into fermentation remain appa- rently unaltered for a long period. Too much or too little water is alike unfavourable to the process. If one part of sugar is dissolved in three or four parts of water, and yeast is added, and the sugary liquid then placed in a warm room, no fermentation takes place, although three of the essential conditions have been fulfilled. Such a solution will require to be diluted with about an equal weight of water, in order to set up active fermentation. On the other hand, sugar dissolved in, say 16 to 20 parts of water, after the addition of yeasts, either ferments but very slowly, or rapidly turns acid in a warm place. These facts have a direct bearing on the proper conservation of hay. As long as grass and clover are still quite fresh, the proportions of water to that of sugar in the green plant are too large to encourage fermentation ; the nitrogenous constituents in newly-cut grass, moreover, only become ferments after the vitality of the plant has been destroyed, and the vegetable cells and vessels have become ruptured by partial drying, and their contents have been mingled together. With the evaporation of water, and, to a certain extent, the more or less complete destruction of the living organisation of the plant, the conditions become more favourable for active fermentation. By degrees the drying crop arrives at a stage when the relative proportions of sugar and of the remaining moisture are most conducive to fermentation. Should the weather unfor- tunately turn showery at that stage of the haymaking process, and the air become saturated for many days and weeks together, the half-made hay often begins to ferment already in the field. When this takes place the hay loses in quality, and becomes much more liable to heat afterwards in the stack. If, on the contrary, fine and warm weather sets in, and evaporation pro- 38 Changes which take place in the Field ceeds with rapidity, the percentage of moisture soon sinks sufficiently low to prevent altogether, or greatly to retard, fermen- tation. The hay remains sweet, and shows far less tendency to heat in the stack, even if it actually contains more moisture than hay made in unfavourable weather. The more quickly the hay can be made in the field, and the less it gets bruised or loses colour there, the less likely it is to heat in the stack. However, much hay is injured when it is quickly made and in a fine season ; it looks to be ready before it is so. If dried ever so much or ever so carefully in the field, hay nevertheless heats to some extent in the stack. A slight fermen- tation, so far from being injurious, may be useful, for, as is well known, peculiar aromatic principles are thus generated, which certainly renders hay more palatable, and, it may be, more nutritious. As long as the green colour is retained, there is no danger of the hay losing in quality, but if the heat in the stack becomes so intense and continuous as to turn the hay decidedly brown, I have no hesitation in saying that considerable loss in feeding matter is incurred. Some feeders of stock prefer brown hay to green, and it cannot be denied that the former often has a more aromatic smell and a more savoury taste than the latter. Although brown hay is much relished by stock, I do not think it desirable to put up hay so wet that it will afterwards turn brown in the stack ; for, as I shall show presently, the sugar which is wasted when hay heats and turns brown in the stack, appears to me of greater value than the aromatic savoury substances which are generated by that process. Some years ago I had an opportunity of examining brown hay which had a peculiarly aromatic, quite fruity flavour. It tasted decidedly acid, and contained scarcely any sugar, but a good deal of mucilage, soluble brown humus-like compounds, with but a small proportion of soluble albuminous matters. On further examination I found the acid in the hay to be acetic acid. The hay was very brittle, dark brown, and an analysis gave the following results : — ', Composition of Brown Strongly-fermented Hay. General Compositiun. Dried at 212° Fabr Moisture . .. 18-33 Soluble organic matters . .. 14-81 18-13 Soluble mineral matters . .. 3-98 4-87 Insoluble organic substances . .. GO-29 73-82 Insoluble roineral substances . .. 2-59 3-18 100-00 100-00 and in the Stack in Haymaking. 39 Detailed Composition. J)ried at 212° Fahr. Moisture 18-33 Fatty matters 1-70 .... 2-08 *Soluble albuminous compounds .. .. 1*94 .... 2"37 Mucilage, gum, brown extractive matters) q.^. ii-qi and traces of sugar \ "^ ' ' " Acetic acid 1-93 .... 2-36 Digestible fibre 23-01 .... 28-19 flnsoluble albuminous compounds .. .. 8'75 .... 10*71 Indigestible woody-fibre (cellulose) .. .. 28-53 .... 34-93 Soluble mineral substances 3-98 .... 4-87 Insoluble mineral substances 2-59 .... 3-18 100-00 100-00 * Containing nitrogen -31 .... -38 t Containing nitrogen 1-40 .... 1-71 The occurrence of a considerable amount of acetic acid in this hav, and the all but complete absence of sugar, deserve a special notice. Vinegar-manufacturers are well acquainted with the fact that all sugary substances may be employed for the production of vinegar, and that in the so-called rapid vinegar process a dilute alcoholic liquid in the presence of a porous substance, such as wood-shavings or chopped straw, or under the influence of a ferment, is rapidly transformed into vinegar. Scientific chemists, moreover, have pointed out the relation which exists on the one hand between sugar and alcohol, and on the other between alcohol and acetic acid — the acid of vinegar — showing that the latter is formed by absorption of oxygen, in other words that acetic acid results from the oxidation of dilute alcohol. It is clear, therefore, that the acetic acid found in the heavier hay was pro- duced at the expense of the sugar present in unfermented or only slightly fermented hay. Subsequently I had an opportunity of examining a rick of clover-hay, which became so hot in the interior that it had to be disturbed. It had been made in a bad season, and was stacked when too moist. On removing the top-layers of the rick the vapours emanating from the heated hay were found to have a peculiar pungent irritating odour, which particularly affected the eyes. A chemist could not doubt for a moment that these irritating vapours were due to the volatile inflammable com- pound which has received the name of Aldehyd. The same pungent odour may be noticed in vinegar manufactories at a certain stage of the vinegar process, and it is well known that aldehyd is produced in abundance when weak alcoholic liquids are allowed to trickle slowly over wood-shavings kept loosely in perforated capacious vats freely admitting air. In this operation 40 Changes lohich take place in the Field a large surface is exposed to the air, and the alcohol transformed into aldehyd by oxidation. Alcohol consists of 4 equivalents of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, and 2 of oxygen, its composition conse- quently may be expressed by the formula C^ Hg Og. By taking up 2 equivalents of oxygen from the air alcohol becomes changed into aldehyd with the production of 2 equivalents of water. This simple change may be represented as follows : — ■ Ji^^^:}^ from^urAir. AMehycl^ Water. C, He O, + 2 = C, H, O2 + 2 H O Aldehyd thus differs from alcohol by containing 2 equivalents less of hydrogen. The principal interest with which aldehyd is invested arises from the facility with which it absorbs oxygen, in consequence of which it readily is transformed into acetic acid. The addition of 2 equivalents of oxygen to aldehyd is all that is required for this change, as will be seen from the following formula : — Aldeh}-d. 2 Oxygen. Acetic Acid. cTnTa + 20 = H o, c, h, d. This oxidation of aldehyd is accompanied with the evolution of much heat. If the supply of air be insufficient,'the acidifica- tion of dilute alcoholic liquids or substances capable of entering into alcoholic fermentation may become so imperfect that the alcohol is merely changed into aldehyd — a product intermediate between alcohol and acetic acid ; and as aldehyd is an extremely volatile substance, it may escape without becoming further oxidised into acetic acid. In the interior of a closely packed hay-rick in an active state of fermentation, in which the sugar is first converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, the supply of air is necessarily but limited, and hence it happened in the case before us that although the vapours of aldehyd emanating from the clover hay-rick were so overpowering as to render it unsafe for a man to stand on the rick, yet so little acetic acid was formed in the hay that I did not consider it worth while to determine the amount quantitatively. jNIy observations on the changes which badly-made hay under- goes in the stack show clearly that excessive fermentation destroys sugar, one of the most valuable constituents of hay, which passing first into alcoholic fermentation is finally lost, either in the shape of aldehyd or that of acetic acid, according as the supply of air is more or less copious. A glance at the following Table will show that the hay, as con- taining 38 per cent, of water, was far too wet for stacking. and in the Stack in Haymaking. 41 Composition of Strougly-fermented Clover-hai/. General Couipositk/n. Dried at 212° Fabr. 08-02 9-40 . .. 15-i7 .3-!)(J G-39 40-01 74-23 2-Gl 4-21 Moisture Soluble organic matters Soluble mineral matters Insoluble organic substances Insoluble mineral substances • 100-00 100-00 Dctulhd CumjiosUion. Water • 38-02 Fatty matters -90 .... 1-45 * Soluble albuminous compounds .. .. 1-88 .... 3'03 Gum, mucilage, brown extractive matters,) p..n m./^a 'i ,.,,, ^ ' '> o-Go .... 10 G'J and a little sugar ) Digestible fibre 15-55 .... 25-09 f Insoluble albuminous compounds .. .. 8-12 .... 13-11 Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose) .. .. 22-33 .... 3G-03 Soluble mineral matter 3-9G .... 6-39 Insoluble mineral matter 2-Gl .... 4-21 10000 100-00 * Containing nitrogen '30 .... '48 t Containing nitrogen I'SO .... 2-09 Apart from the large excess of water, the high percentage of indigestible woody fibre shows that this sample was of very inferior quality, and that the excessive fermentation to which it was subject in the rick destroyed much sugar as well as albumi- nous compounds. Bad as this hay was, it was by no means at its worst, for on further keeping in the stack it became reduced by degrees to a dark brown mass which crumbled under the fingers like snuff, and became only fit for the dunghill. It is well, therefore, to remember that highly-fermented hay, which has passed through the acetous acid fermentation, on pro- longed keeping in the rick undergoes a kind of slow combustion or eremacausis, in consequence of which compounds like those present in peat are formed, and much valuable feeding matter is entirely resolved into gaseous products. It is to be regretted that we possess no precise data, showing the actual loss in substance from a given weight of fresh grass. To supply this deficiency I purpose to put up next season a weighed quantity of well and badly made hay into a small rick to ascertain from time to time the actual loss which the whole rick sustains, and at the same time to determine by analysis, at the time of the periodical weighing, of what the loss in weight chiefly consists. 3. — Loss on cutting Grass and Clover either too early or too late in the Season. i Practical men are agreed that the best time to cut our hay- 42 ' Changes which take place in the Field crops is the period wlien the grasses or clovers have just done flowering, and the lower parts of the stems show signs of drying up. The precise date at which grass should be cut, of course, will vary according to climate, season, soil, and manures em- ployed ; neither is it possible to describe intelligibly the appear- ance of the crop when it thus attains maturity. However, hay- crops are frequently seen in the fields which might with advantage have been cut down a week or fortnight earlier, and occasionally others are gathered in too soon ; though a single week's differ- ence in the time of cutting may affect very materially both the quality and the quantity of the produce. With a view to obtaining some reliable data, calculated to throw light on the loss which farmers sometimes unconsciously sustain by beginning the hay- harvest either too early or too late, I tried a series of experiments, some years ago, at the Agricultural College, Cirencester, when a favourable opportunity presented itself in a remarkably even and good clover-field resting on the great oolite formation. The land was level and in a good agricultural condition, the clover was equally thick throughout the field, as far as could be judged by the eye, and grew luxuriantly. The analysis of the soil and subsoil gave the following results : — Composition of Experimental Clover-field. Surface Soil. Moisture (when analysed) 1*49 Organic matter and water of comLination .. 11-80 Oxides of iron and ahnuina 15*82 Carbonate of lime lO'oT Alcalies and magnesia -64 Insoluble silicious matter (clay) 59'S8 100-00 Clay-subsoil. Moisture (when analysed) 13-40 Oxides of iron and alumina 17-01 Carbonate of lime 7-05 Magnesia "60 Sulphate of lime '56 Potash and soda 1-06 Insoluble silicious matter (clay) GO'32 100-00 The analysis, I need hardly say, is not a complete one, and is merely given here in order to show that the clover grew on a good calcareous clay-soil, which was Avell suited for the crop. Part of the field where the growth was most even was set apart for experiment, and accurately divided into 12 plots, each measuring exactly 1 pole (16^ feet square). The clover on plot 1 was mown for the first time as early as and in the Stack in HaymaMng. 43 the 15th of April. A second cutting was made on the 28th of April, a third May 12th, the fourth May 26, the fifth June 10th, and the last June 30th. The whole produce of each cutting- was weighed at once in the field, and at the same time a fair average sample was taken in each instance for the determination of the amount of water, albuminous compounds, and mineral matters (ash). My object in beginning to mow the clover so early in the season was to ascertain incidentally whether eating off the young clover early in spring, as is sometimes the practice on the Cotteswold hills when spring food is scarce, was attended with loss in food or not. But for this object there would have been no use in mowing the clover so early in the season. On the 2nd plot, the first cutting was made on the 28th of April, and was followed by other cuttings on the same dates as those of plot 1. When Mo\v-^ Plot 3 was mown on May 12 May 2B June 10 June 30 Plot 4 May 26 June 10 June 30 Plot 5 J une 2 June 16 July 28 Plot 6 June 9 June 30 Plot 7 •• June 16 July 28 On plots 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 the clover was mown once, and on the following dates. Plot 8 June 23rd, plot 9 June 30th, plot 10 July 7th, plot 11 July 18, and on plot 12 July 28th. The experiments thus extended over a period of 3^ months, and the periodical weighings and analyses of the different mowings were made at intervals sufficiently numerous to bring out with certainty any marked differences which were likely to occur either in the quality or the quantity of the produce at different times of the year. The results of these experiments are incorporated in the fol- lowing Tables, showing the composition and weight of the produce of each plot. In the first Table the composition in two parts is given both of the fresh and dried clover at the 6 periods when it was mown. The second Table shows the actual weighings of the fresh produce of each plot, the amount of dry matter contained therein, and the chief food-constituents which compose the dry substance of clover. In the third Table the preceding tabulated results are calculated per acre, and in separate columns the amount of hay per acre is also given, assuming the latter to contain 16 "7 per cent, of mois- ture, which is a fair average proportion in dried good clover-hay. The percentage of moisture in clover-hay, I may observe in 44 Changes which take place in the Field passing, varies a good deal with the state of the atmosphere. In the same rick, I found one-year-old clover-hay to contain from 18*20 per cent, of moisture in the colder and damper months of the year, and only 14*15 per cent, in the drier months. Clover- hay, therefore, may be assumed to contain on an average about one-sixth of its weight of water. PLOT I. Table I. — Clover Experiments." a. Composition of Fresh Produce in 100 parts. Date of Mowikgs. First, April 15. Second, Third, April 2S. May 12. Fourth, May 26. Fifth, June 10. Sixth, June 30. Interval since former mowing , Moisture ''Albuminous compounds . . Non-nitrogenous substances Mineral matter (ash) lbs. 82 •as 2-68 13-00 2-07 2 weeks lbs. 80^10 4^25 13-18 2-47 2 weeks lbs. 82^20 3^94 11^.56 2-30 2 weeks lbs. 79*30 3-19 14^90 2^61 2 weeks lbs. 80-10 4^12 13-69 2-09 100^00 Containing nitrogen 100-00 100-00 •63 100-00 100-00 •51 •66 3 weeks lbs. 77-10 4-44 15-95 2-51 100-00 •71 h. Composition of Produce dried at 212° Fahr. *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous matters Mineral substances (ash) 15 12 21 31 22 12 15 37 73 27 66 28 64 96 72 03 11 61 12 41 12 92 12 60 20-69 68^8l 10-50 Containing nitrogen 100-00 2-42 100- uo 3-41 100^00 3-54 100-00 100-00 2-46 3^31 19-37 69-67 10-96 100-00 3-10 Table II.— (Weight in lbs. of Produce in Plot 1.) Date of Mowings. First, April 15. ' Second, April 2S. Third, May 12. Fourth, Fifth, May 26. June 10. Sixth, June 30. Total. Interval since former"! mowing / Fresh produce .. Produce dried at 212° F. Consisting of: — *Nitrogeijous substances Non- nitrogenous sub-' stances i Mineral matter (ash) * Containing nitrogen . . lbs. 281 5-05 •75 3^72 •58 -12 2 weeks lbs. 3i •69 •12 •49 •08 •02 2 weeks lbs. 18 3^20 •69 2-10 •41 •11 2 weeks lbs. 10 2-07 •31 1^50 •26 •05 2 weeks lbs. 9 1^79 •31 1^30 •18 •05 3 weeks lbs. 7 1-GO •25 1^18 •17 •04 lbs. 76 14-40 2-43 10^29 1-68 •3J and in the Stack in Haymakinf/. Table III. — Produce in lbs. of Plot 1, calculated per Acre. 45 Date of Mowings. First, Second, Third. Fourth, Fifth. Sixth, Total. April 15. April 28. May 12. May 26. June 10. June 30. Interval since former'l mowing j 1 lbs. 2 weeks 2 weeks 2 weeks 2 weeks 3 weeks lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Fresh prodnce ,. .. 4560 560 2880 1600 1440 1120 / 12160 lbs, = \5t. 8 c. 64 lbs. Produce dried at 212^ F.' 808-0 Produce calculated as) hay, containing 16-7| 969'6 per cent, of moisture) 110-4 132-4 512-0 614-4 331-2 397-4 286-4 343-6 256-0 307-2 / 2304 lbs. = 1, I ton 64 lbs. I 2764-6 lbs.= I I t. 4 c. 76 lbs. *\itrogenous matters .. 120'0 19-2 110-4 49-6 49-6 40-0 / 388 • 8 lbs. = t 3 cwt. 52 lbs. Non-nitrogenous matters .59 5 * 2 78-4 .336-0 240-0 208-0 188-8 1 1646 -4 lbs. = 1 14 cwt. 78 lbs. Mineral matters (ash) , 92-8 12-8 65-6 41-6 28-8 27-2 r 268 -8 lbs. = \ 2 cwt. 44 lbs. * Containing nitrogen .. i 19-2 3-20 17-6 8-0 8-0 6-4 64-2 lbs. Cut as early as the 15tla of April, the clover, it will be seen, contained much more moisture than the cuttings on the 26th of May, 10th and 30th of June. The first mowing- also was poor in nitrogenous matter, and this poverty was due not merely to the greater amount of water, for the dry substance itself yielded only 2-42 per cent, of ni- trogen, whereas the dry produce on June the 10th contained 3'31 per cent., and that of the oOth of June 3-10 per cent, of nitrogen. By far the largest weight of clover was obtained at the first cutting, and comparatively little at the second ; in the following fortnight, fine and warm weather having set in, the clover again grew vigorously. Altogether plot 1 produced in the 6 mowings 5 tons 8 cwt. and 64 lbs. of fresh clover, or calculated as hay, 1 ton 11 cwt. 76 lbs. of clover-hay per acre. The 2nd plot yielded the results contained in the following Tables (see pp. 46, 47). In this plot — 1. The first mowing was much poorer in nitrogenous matters than all the succeeding cuttings. 2. The second mowing contained an unusually large amount of moisture. 1 must, however, explain that this arose in a great measure from a heavy dew which had fallen on the clover shortly before it was weisfhed in the field. 46 Changes which take place in the Field PLOT IT. Table I. — Clover Experiments. a. Composition of Fresh Produce in 100 parts. Date of Mo'wnfGS. First, April 23. Second, May 12. Third, May 26. Fourth, June 10. Fifth, June 30. Interyal since former mowing Composition of fresh produce Moisture *Nitrogenous substances . . Non-nitrogenous matters Mineral matters (ash) . . lbs. 80-80 2-88 14-41 1-91 2 weeks lbs. 86-30 2-69 9-29 1-72 Containing nitrogen 100-00 -46 100-00 4-3 2 weeks lbs. 79-80 3-86 13-73 2-61 100-00 -61 2 weeks lbs. 78-30 4-12 14-85 2-73 100-00 •66 2 weeks lbs. 77-10 4-31 15-75 2-84 100-00 -69 I. Composition of Produce dried at 212° Fahr. Composition of dry produce : — *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous matters Mineral substances (ash) 14-93 75-13 9-94 19-62 67-83 12-55 18-87 68-21 12-92 19-01 68-41 12-58 18-81 68-79 12-40 * Containing nitrogen 100-00 2-39 100-00 3- 14 100-00 3-02 100-00 3-04 100-00 3-01 Table II.— Produce of Plot 2 in lbs. Date op Mowings. First, April 28. Second, May 12. Third, May 26. Fourth, June 10. Fifth, June 30. Total. Interval since former! mowing J Weight of fresh produce Weight of produce dried^l dried at 212= Fahr. ../ 2 weeks 2 weeks 2 weeks 2 weeks lbs. 55 10-56 lbs. 9| 1-33 lbs. 12 2-42 lbs. 10 2-17 lbs. 8 1-83 lbs. 94f 18-31 Consisting of: — *Nitrogenous substances . . 1-56 •25 •44 -37 •31 2-93 Non - nitrogenous sub-"l stances / 7-96 -92 1-67 1-53 1-30 13-38 Mineral matters (ash) . . 1-04 •16 •31 •27 -22 2-00 * Containing nitrogen -25 •04 •07 •06 ■05 •47 and ill the Stack in Haymaking. 47 Table III. — Produce calculated per Acre in Plot Date op Mowings. TotaL First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, April 23. May 12. May 26. June 10. June ao. Fresh produce in lbs. . . lbs. 8800-0 lbs. 1560-0 lbs. 1920-0 lbs. 1600-0 lbs. 1280-0 /1 5,1 60 lbs. = \6t. 10 c. 80 lbs. /2929-61bs. = \1 t. 6 c. 16 lbs. Weight of dry produce inl lbs.(driedat212^Fahr.)/ 16S9-6 212-8 387-2 347-2 292-8 Produce calculated as hay 1 /3515-4lbs. = \1 t. 11 c. 43 lbs. (containing 16'7 per> cent, of water . . . . ) 202 7 -.5 255 - 3 464-6 416-6 •351-3 *Nitrogenous matters 249-6 40-0 70-4 59-2 49-6 468-8 lbs. Non-nitrogenous matters 127.3-6 147-2 267-2 244-8 208-0 r2140-8 lbs. = \l9cwts. 12 lbs. ^Mineral matters (ash) . . 166-4 2.j • 6 49-6 43-2 35-2 320 lbs. * Containing nitrogen 40-0 6-4 11-2 9-6 8-0 75 lbs. 3. The first mowing- made on the 28th of April yielded 55 lbs. of fresh, or lOj lbs. (in round numbers) of dried clover, whereas the first and second cuttings made on plot 1 with the same length of growth yielded only 32 lbs. of fresh, or 5f lbs. of dry clover. We have here a convincing proof of the disadvantage of feeding off clover by sheep too early in spring. The loss in food was considerable, and the young clover on plot 1, as proved by analysis, was in no wise superior in feeding quality to that of plot 2. 4. The yield was at the rate of 1 ton 2 cwt. and 16 lbs. more fresh clover, or nearly 7 cwt. more clover-hay per acre than on plot 1. The increase on plot 2 over 1 it will further be seen is entirely due to the much larger yield in the 1st mowing, for the suc- ceeding mowings showed but little difference. Looking at the composition of the fresh produce of plot 3 (see p. 48) it will be seen that the first moAving contained much more moisture than the three following, and that the 2nd mowing was unusually rich in dry matter. But comparing the composi- tion of the dried clover it will be seen that the four mowings had a remarkably uniform chemical constitution, more especially as regards the percentage of nitrogen in each. "^ The chief points of interest, however, are noticeable in the 2nd and 3rd Tables, showing the actual weight of each mowing. Comparing the produce with that of the preceding plot, cut for the first time a fortnight earlier, it will be noticed that the first mowing on plot 3 actually produced 4 lbs. more fresh clover 48 Changes lohich take place in the Field PLOT III. Table I. — Clover Experiments. It. Composition of Fresh Produce. Date of Mowings. First, May 12. Second, May 26. Third, June 10. Fourtb, June 30. Interval since former mowing . . Moisture *Nitrogeiious substances Non-uitrogenous substances Mineral matter (ash) llis. 81 -.30 2-87 14-24 1-59 2 weeks lbs. 73-30 4-12 19-39 3-19 2 weeks lbs. 77-70 3-56 16-04 2-70 3 weeks lbs. 77-00 3-56 16-76 2-68 * Containing nitrogen 100-00 -46 100-00 •66 lOO'OO -57 100-00 -57 h. Composition of Produce dried at 212° Fahr. *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous substances ]\Iineral matter (ash) - . . 15-37 76-13 8-50 15-44 72-62 11-94 15-94 71-96 12-10 15-4+ 72-0 11-65 * Containing nitrogen 100-00 -46 100-00 2--17 100-00 2' 55 100-UO 2-47 Table II. — Produce of Plot 3 in lbs. Date of MOWIKGS. First, Second, Third, Fourth, Total. May 12. May 26. June 10. June 30. Interval since formerj mowing / 2 weeks 2 weeks 3 weeks lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Weight of fresh produce 98 4i IIJ 8 121i Weight of dry produce.. 18-32 1-17 2-50 1-84 23-83 Consisting of: — *Nitrogenous substances . . 2-81 •12 •37 -25 3-5r) Non-nitrogenous matters 13-96 •92 1-83 1-38 18^09 Mineral substances (ash) 1-55 -13 -30 •21 2-19 * Containing nitrogen ■45 •02 •06 •04 •57 Table 111. — Produce calculated per Acre in Plot 3. Fresh produce in lbs. .. 15,680 Weight of dry produce^ 093^.0 in lbs j " Produce calculated as hay j (containing 16-7 per) 3517-4 cent, of moisture) . . J ^"Nitrogenous matters . . 449 • 6 Non- nitrogenous sub-~l 2233 "6 stances j Mineral matters (ash) .. j 248-0 * Containing nitrogen .. j 72-0 1944Ulbs. = St. 13 c. 64 lbs. 3812-8 lbs. = 1 t. 14 c. 8 lbs. 4575 -3 lbs. = 2 t. 95 lbs. .'•)681bs. = 5 c. 8 lbs. •.2S94-4lbs. 1 t. 5 c. 94 lbs. 350-4 lbs. = 3 c. 14 lbs. 91-2 lbs. and in the Stack in Haymakinrj. 49 than all the mowings together on plot 2, or, in dry substance, almost exactly the same weight. The total yield of plot 3, calculated per acre, amounted to 8 tons 13 cwt. and 64 lbs. of fresh clover, which is 2 tons 2 cwt. and 96 lbs, more than the total produce per acre on plot 2. Calculated as hay, plot 3 gave 2 tons and 95 lbs., whereas the yield on plot 2, which was mown a fortnight earlier, was only 1 ton 11 cwt. 45 lbs. Besides the loss in weight which takes place when clover is grazed early in spring, or mown too soon, the inferior character of the first mowings on plots 1 and 2 has to be taken into account. Weight for weight, therefore, the produce of plot 3 was more valuable than that of plots 1 and 2. On comparing the weight of the clover reaped on plot 4 (pp. 50, 51) on the 26th of May with that of the two cuttings made on plot 3 on the 12th and 26th of May, we find a very large accumulation of organic matter has taken place by allowing the clover to grow a fortnight longer before mowing it. The fresh clover on plot 3, it will be seen, weighed 98 lbs. on the 12th of May, and 4|^ lbs. on the 26th of May, which is 102jlbs. together, whilst the first mowing on plot 4, made on the 26th of May, yielded 131 lbs. or 28j lbs. more. This increase in feeding materials is greater than the mere weights of the fresh produce indicate, for on looking at the composition of the first mowing of plot 3, it will be seen that the clover contained 81 J per cent, of water, whilst the clover cut on plot 4, a fortnight later, contained only 78/o per cent. ; when due allowance is made for both these differences, it will be found that the single mowing produced nearly one half more of solid food than the double one. During the fortnight which elapsed between the 12th and 26th of May, the clover appeared to come rapidly to perfection ; it was then in full flower, and looked remarkably vigorous. In this period the assimilation of carbon through the medium of the leaves or roots appears to be very great, for whilst sugar and other carbon-hydrates are at this time abundantly produced, little or no further accumulation of nitrogenous substances appears to take place. In the case before us the two mowings on plot 3 contained exactly as much nitrogen as the one mowing on plot 4. Calculated per acre we find in the clover of the 12th of May 72 lbs. of nitrogen, and in the second mowing on the 26th of May 3"2 lbs. of nitrogen, or 75'2 lbs. in all — the identical quantity of nitrogen which is contained in the much larger weight of clover obtained on plot 4, by cutting it only once on the 26th of May. At this stage of growth, as it seems, much carbon is assimilated by the plant for the production of sugar and other carbon-hydrates, which are serviceable in the animal VOL. III. — S. S. E 50 Changes which take place in the Field economy for the production of fat ; whilst the nitrogenous sub- stances previously taken up are diffused, and probably undergo greater elaboration. In both these respects the clover becomes much more nutritious and valuable at this time, in spite of its percentage in nitrogen being smaller. Indeed, rvithin certain limits, we may say that the amount of nitrogen in clover diminishes in the measure in which its nutri- tive value increases. We must, however, be careful how we apply this rule, for a small percentage of nitrogen may indicate alike the presence of much or of little sugar. In succulent, sweet-tasting, and really nutritious clover this percentage is small comparatively speaking, because the nitrogenous or albu- minous compounds in the plant are diffused through a large mass of carbon-hydrates or fat-producers, and in overripe, woody, insipid, and innutritions clover the percentage of nitrogen also is small, because such clover contains little sugar and much indigestible woody fibre or cellulose, which is a non-nitrogenous substance. The clover, on the 26th of May, as already mentioned, had just burst into full flower, and approached rapidly towards maturity. PLOT lY. Table I. — Clover Experiments. a. Composition of Fresh Produce in lbs. Date or Mowings. First, May 26. Second, June 10. Third, June 30. Interval since former mowing Composition of fresh produce : — Moisture *Nitrogenous substances.. Non-nitrogenous matters Mineral substances (ash) • Containing nitrogen Composition of dry produce : — *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous matters Mineral substances (ash) * Containing nitrogen lbs. 78-70 2 '25 17-24 1-81 2 weeks lbs. 71-00 5-56 20-56 2'88 100-00 •36 100-00 « weeks lbs. 77-01 4-19 14-92 3-88 100-00 •69 10 -.56 80-94 8-50 19-18 71-09 9-93 100-00 1-69 100-00 3-07 18-18 65-01 16-81 100-00 2-91 and in the Stack in HaymaMvg. 51 Table II. — Weight of Prochice in lbs. of Plot 4. Date of Mowikgs. First. May 26. Second, June 10. Third, June 30. Total. Interval since former mowing Weight of fresh produce . . Weight of dry produce Consisting of: — ^Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous substances Mineral matter (ash) * Containing nitrogen ibs. 131 27-90 2-94 22^52 2^44 •47 2 weeks lbs. 3^ 1-01 •19 •72 •10 •03 3 weeks lbs. 14 3^22 •56 2" 12 •54 ,•09 lbs. 32^13 3-69 25-36 3'08 •59 Table III. — Produce, calculated per Acre, in lbs. Fresh produce in lbs. Weight of dry produce Produce calculated as hay (16^ per cent, of moisture) . . ^Nitrogenous substances . . Non-nitrogenous mattei'S . . Mineral substances (ash) . . * Containing nitrogen 20960 560 2240 446-4 lGl-6 515-2 :} .'isse-s 193-9 618-3 470-4 30-4 89-6 3G03-2 115-2 339-2 390-4 16-0 86 -4 75-2 4-8 U-i 23, 760 lbs. = lot. 12 c. 16_lbs. Jo 140 lbs. = 1^2 t. 5 c. 100 lbs. /6169lbs. = \2t. 15 0. 9 lbs. (59^04lbs. = \5c. 30 lbs. (4057 lbs. = \1 t. 16 c. 25 lbs. 492^8 lbs. = 4 c. 44 lbs. 94 lbs. Anxious to follow its fuller development with greater certainty, I determined to mow some of the remaining experimental plots from week to week during the month of July. Plot 5 consequently was mown for the first time on the 2nd of June (or one week after plot 4), then subsequently a fortnight afterwards, and again six weeks later, with the following results : — (pp. 52, 53). \ If we compare the composition of the produce of plot 4, mown on the 26th of May, with that of plot 5 mown on June 2nd, scarcely any differences will be seen. Both contain almost exactly the same amount of water, and both are also very equally rich in sugar and correspondingly poor in nitrogen. The results of my analysis from plot 5 satisfied me that the small percentage of nitrogen which I found in the produce of plot 4 (and of which I doubted the correctness until confirmed by repeated nitrogen- determinations) was not merely accidental ; the two together afford positive evidence that at the period when clover bursts into flower the assimilation of nitrogenous constituents appears E 2 " 52 Changes lohic/i take place in the Field to come to a standstill, whilst that of carbon-hydrates is pro- ceeding with g-reatly accelerated speed. Again it will be seen that plot 5 produced almost exactly the same weight of fresh and of dried clover which was yielded by plot 4, and thus it appeared that in the case before us a week's difference in the time of mowing had neither a beneficial nor an injurious effect. The total produce of plot 5 is somewhat greater than that of plot 4 ; this is due, it will be seen, to the circumstance that the last mowing on plot 5 was made a month later than that on plot 4. Considering that quite a month was thus allowed for further growth, the additional produce is very trifling, but no doubt the dry state of the weather in July, and the somewhat baked state of the land, checked the further growth of the plant. With the more matured condition of clover the percentage of water, it will be seen, fell considerably in the course of a single week ; nevertheless the weight of the fresh produce on plot 6 was greater than that on plot 5, and on plot 7 (pp. 54, 55) greater than on plot 6. The variable proportions of moisture in fresh clover, hoAvever, introduce an element of confusion, wherefore it is better to compare the weight of the perfectly dry produce obtained from PLOT V. Table I. — Clover Experiments. a. Composition of Fresh Produce in ll3S. Date of Mowings. First, June 2. Second, June 16. Third, July 28. Interval since former mowing .. ..^ .. Moisture *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous matters Mineral substances (ash) lbs. 78-80 2-06 17-51 1-63 2 weeks lbs. 69-20 4-50 23-11 3-19 6 weeks lbs. 69-20 2-50 25-81 2-49 100-00 -33 100-00 •72 100-00 -40 h. Composition of Produce dried at 212° Fahr. *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous matters Mineral substances (ash) 9-69 82-68 7-68 14-56 75-09 10-35 8-06 83-86 8-08 100-00 1-55 100-00 2-33 100-00 i-;9 and in the Stack in Haymahing. 53 Table II. — "Weight of Produce in lbs. of Plot 5. Date of JIowixgs. First, June 2. Second, June 16. Tbird, July 28. Total. Interval since former mowing . . Weight of fresh produce . . Weight of dry produce (dried'! at2120Fahr.) / Consisting of: — *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous substances Mineral matters (ash) * Containing nitrogen Vbs. 132 27-98 2-69 23-15 2-14 •43 2 weeks lbs. If •53 •06 •42 •05 •01 G weeks lbs 18 5-54 •44 4-66 •44 •07 lbs. 151| 34-05 3-19 28-23 2-63 •51 Table III. — Produce of Plot 5 calculated per Acre in lbs. Fresh produce in lbs. Weight of dry produce Produce calculated as hay (IC per cent, moisture) ^'Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous matters . . Mineral substances (ash) . . * Containing nitrogen 21,120-0 280-0 2880 •O 4,476^8 84-8 886-4 } 5,372 •I 101-8 1063-6 430-4 9-6 70-4 3,704-0 67-2 745-6 342-4 1 8-0 70-4 G8-8 1-6 11-2 /24,280lbs. = \10t. 16 c. 88 lbs. (5448 lbs, = \2t. 8c. 72 lbs. ) 6537 lbs. = I2t. 18 c. 41 lbs. ('510^4lbs. = \4c. 62 lbs. r4516-8lbs. = \2 t. 36 lbs. (420-8 lbs. = 13 c. 84-8 lbs. from two mowings on plot 5, and with those from plots G and 7 at a single mowing. The total quantity of dry matter grown on one pole of land weighed 28"51 lbs. when the clover was mown on the 2nd of June, and a second time on June 16th. By allowing it to grow until the 9th of June 36-18 lbs. of dry substance was produced, and by giving it another week on the land, till the 16th of June, 39-36 lbs. of dry matter was obtained. These differences may not appear very great in themselves, yet they show that a single week's delay considerably affects the crop grown jjer acre. Between June 2nd and June 9th an increase of 1574 lbs. of solid feeding matter was obtained ; between June 2nd and June 16th the difference was 2185 lbs., showing plainly the impolicy of beginning the clover-hay harvest too early in the season. Deducting from the total weight of 54 Chaiiges which take place in the Field clover hay on plot 6 the quantity produced between the 9th and 30th of June — a quantity amounting to about 2\ cwt. — an acre of clover yielded 3 tons and 2 cwts. of good hay, containing 16'7 per cent, of moisture. On plot 7, where the crop was mown on the 16th of June, 3 tons 6i cwt. in round numbers of equally dry clover-hay was made. The further growth between the 16th of June and 28th of July was at the rate of exactly 1 ton of fresh clover, or about 7|- cwts. of hay per acre. Altogether the yield of plot 7, esti- mated as hay, came to 3 tons 13 cwts. and 100 lbs., which, it must be admitted, is a very good crop. Moreover, on plot 7 we have the largest accumulation of nitrogen. The nitrogen in the clover on the 16th of June here amounted to 113 iV lbs. calculated per acre — a larger quantity than was found at any of the other experimental mowings. According to the preceding results, the week in which the 16th of June fell appears to have been the most profitable period for beginning the hay-harvest. PLOTS VI. AND VII. Table I.— Clover Experiments. a. Composition of Fresh Produce in lbs. Plot 6. Date of Mowings. Plot 7. Date of Mowings. First, June 9. F Second, June 30. First, June 16. Second, July 28. Interval since former mowing Moisture *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous compounds Mineral matters (ash) lbs. 73-20 2-97 21-80 2-03 3 weeks lbs. 70-90 4-12 21-83 3-15 lbs. 74-10 2-94 21-08 1-88 6 weeks lbs. 69-50 3-25 24*38 2-87 * Containing nitrogen 100-00 -38 100-00 •66 100-00 100-00 ■47 bZ h. Composition of Clover dried at 212° Fahr. *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous substances Mineral matters (ash) 8-81 83-62 7-57 14-12 75-06 10-82 11-31 81-44 7-25 10-62 79-97 9-41 * Containing nitrogen 100-00 1-41 100-00 2-26 100-00 1-81 100-00 1-70 a»d in the Stack in Hcnfmaking. Table IL — ^Pixrrs 6 aud 7 (Weight of Produce in He.). 00 EfcJe «f M -=^1;^. Ttt^ secocii. T;:il Iz:. (dried a: 21: fahr.j; ill rrs 'ash) I Sirks- S^ks. 5s. 350 139* 152 14 Ois. 166 -36 18 1-30 -37 -43 39 •36 4-27 43-63 .3-19 •12 3-31 4 ■ ' *■ •--i 4-88 30-26 1-04 ' -31-30 32-07 3-43 25-50 2-73 -14,' 2'S7 2-85 •40 3-25 ■a! -« •53 ■71 -f7 ■:a Plots 6 aiid 7 calculated per Acre. Fresh produ.ce in lbs. Weight of diT produce Produce calcuJIated as) hay (16-7 per oent.> sKxistsre) .. ..) "Nitrogesioiis sabstances Non-mtrogenons sah-i stances ( Miseral matters (ash 2l,r>;<) 5,7»8-8 6,946-5 510-4 4,S41-6 4-36 -S 8I-« 720 208 ( 22.320 lbs. = \9t.l9c32Ibs./ / 5996-8 lbs. = I 1 2 1. 13 c 60 lbs./ ^24,320 6^7*6 ^49-6/^^1^*1 ">• = ] -*^ l3t.4c2Slbs./ ,/ 523 Ifcs. = I -\ 4c 81 lbs. J 1 } .^(...rsoosibs. = l'*^*i:2t.4cS0lbs. ^,.J,459lbs. = ~ ^4x. 10 lbs. 84-8 OS. 7,557*1 710-4 5,131-2 456-0 113-« 2240 I I 683-3 j 819« 70-4 , 548-8 i 64-0 1/26,560 lbs. = |\llt.l7c.l6lbs. ■;/69801hs. = t3t.2c -36 lbs. VS376 ' \3t.U u-a 69lhs. = 3cl0OlbsL 780-8 lbs. = 6 c 108-8 lbs. i5680lbs. = J2t. 10 c SO lbs- /520HB. = \4C 72lhs. JlSt-SBs. = llcilZ-SIbs. On iL.e remaining five experimental plots the clover was mown only once at the periods mentioned in the subjoined tabular statement of results : — f p. 56 ) In the first Table, which gives the composition of the five mowing's, we find, as mi^ht have been expected, that with the advancing season the clover became drier and drier. On the 16th of June the clover on plot 7 contained 74 per cent. of moisture, a week later that on plot 8 contained onlv 72i per cenL, and a fortnight later only 65-2 per cent In the week follow- ing the clover apparently gained a good deal of moisture, for on the 7th of Jtdv the percentag-e of moisture amounted to 68"7 per cent. This apparent increase, however, I believe was caused entirely by a heavv dew which lav on the clover when it was weighed in the field. At the next mowing we find only 64; per cent., and ten 56 Changes lohich take place in the Field PLOTS VIII. IX. X. XI. AND XII. Table I.— Clover Experiments. a. Composition of Fresh Produce in 100 jmrts. Plot 8. Mown Juno 23. Plot 9, Mown June 30. Plot 10. Mown July 7. Plot 11. Mown July 18. Plot 12. Mown July 28. Moisture *Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous substances .. Mineral matters (ash) lbs. 72-50 2-56 22-81 2-13 lbs. 65-20 2-87 29-49 2-44 lbs. 68-70 2-50 26.59 2-21 lbs. 64-01 2-37 31-01 2-61 lbs. 50-80 3-00 43-27 2-93 * Containing nitrogen 100-00 •41: 100-00 -46 100-00 -40 100-00 -38 100-00 -48 h. Composition of Produce dried at 212° Fahr. *Nitrogenous substances . . Non-nitrogenous substances Mineral matters (ash) 9-31 82-95 7-74 8-25 84-74 7-01 7-94 85-00 7-OG 6-62 86-13 7-25 6-06 87-99 5-95 * Containing nitrogen 100-00 1-49 100-00 1-32 100-00 1-27 100-00 1-06 100-00 -97 Table II. — Plots 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12, (Produce per Plot in lbs.). Plot 8. Mown June 23. Plot 9. Mown June 30. Plot 10. Mown July 7. Plot 11. Mown July IS. Plot 12. Mown July 28. Weight of fresh produce .. Weight of dried produce (driedl at 212^ Fahr.) / Consisting of: — *Nitrogenous substances . . Non-nitrogenous substances . . Mineral matters (ash) * Containing nitrogen lbs. 137 37-67 3-50 31-26 2-91 •56 lbs. 108 37-58 3-06 31-89 2-63 -49 lbs. 110 34-43 2-69 29-32 2-42 •43 lbs. 99 35-64 2-31 30-75 2-58 -37 lbs. 63 30-99 1-87 27-28 1-84 •30 Table III. — Plots 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12, Produce in lbs., calculated per Acre. Fresh produce 21,920 17,280 17,600 15,840 10,080 Weight of dry produce (dried i at 212° Fahr.) ] 6,027-2 6,012-8 5,508-8 5,702-4 4,958-4 Produce calcuLated as hay (IG"? per cent, of moisture) . . 7, 2.32 -6 7,215-3 6,610-5 6,842-9 5,950 *Nitrogenous substances 560-0 489-6 430-4 369-6 299-2 Non-nitrogenous substances . . 5,001-6 5,102-4 4,691-2 4,920-0 4,364-8 Mineral matters (ash) 465-6 420-8 387-2 412-8 294-4 * Containing nitrn!::on 89-G 78-4 68-8 59-2 48-0 and in the Stack in Hayma]dn(/. 57 ten days later, at the last mowing, only 51 per cent, of moisture in round numbers. It is hardl}' necessary for me to say that the clover on plots 11 and 12 was far more advanced in maturity than is likely often to be the case in actual practice, and that on all the five plots it was more or less overripe. My intention, in preserving- these five additional plots for further experiments, was to ascertain to what extent and with what degree of rapidity clover loses in weight and in quality after it has arrived at per- fection for feeding purposes. It is interesting to notice the gradual diminution of the per- centage of nitrogenous matters in the five last mowings. On the ] (3th of June we found 11'31, in the dry produce, on the 23rd only 9'31, in the week following 8"25 ; and this sinks to 7*94: in another week, and on the 18th of July we get only 6'(J2 per cent., and ten days afterwards 6"06 per cent, of nitrogenous matter in the dry clover-hay. We have here a steady decrease of the percentage of nitrogen in the dry produce at each experimental period from the 16th of June to the 28th of July. Thus the perfectly dried clover-hay contained — Per Cent, of Nitrogen. On the IGthof Juue 1-81 „ 23rd „ 1-49 „ 30th „ 1-32 „ 7th of July 1-27 „ 18th „ l-OO „ 28th „ -97 This loss in nitrogenous matter appears to me to be chiefly due to the comparative small proportion of fine green leaves, and greater abundance of woody matter which is found in overripe clover-hay. At the same time I do not think the loss is entirely due to this cause, and the whole subject is well worthy a special investigation. It is extremely difficult to trace with precision the changes which nitrogenous matters undergo in the living plant, to determine their influence in the assimilation of atmos- pheric plant-food, or to account for their accumulation in plants at certain stages of their growth, and their diminution at others ; though much patient scientific labour has been bestowed on the investigation of the loss of nitrogenous matter which takes place in the growth of agricultural crops, much more is still to be done before we can trace with certainty losses like those which take place, as Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have shown, in the growth of wheat. Looking at the Tables which give the weight of clover at the five last periods of mowing, we find less and less fresh oiover at each succeeding period. Mown on June 16th, 1 pole thus pro- duced 152 lbs. of fresh clover. 58 Changes ivhich take place in the Field On June 23 137 lbs. „ 30 108 July 7 no „ 18 99 „ 28 63 On the 7tli of June apparently more clover was mown than in the preceding week. But if we look at the amount of dry sub- stance in the clover on the 30th of June and on July 7th, we find 37^ lbs. in the former, and 3A^ lbs. in round numbers in the latter. The dry produce on the 18th of July was a little greater than on plot 11, mown eleven days previously. It must not be inferred from this that really more clover would have been obtained on the whole clover-field, if instead of mowing it on the 7th of July it had been allowed to grow until the 18th, for the whole tenor of the results of the experiments on plots 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 tends to show that the amount of dry clover decreased after the 16th of June from week to week. I am therefore disposed to conjecture that this exceptional result was due to the circumstance that the clover on plot 11 probably was a little thicker than on plot 10, or the land a little better. On the last plot (12) the decrease in the weight of clover is very marked, as well as the deterioration in the quality of the produce. The subjoined tabulated results afford additional proof to that already adduced, of the great deterioration of quality of clover which is allowed to become overripe in the field. The table gives the amount of soluble and insoluble matter, and as the amount of crude woody fibre (matters insoluble in water) indi- cates with tolerable accuracy the comparative amount of indiges- tible woody fibre in hay, the following results are not void of interest or partial utility : — Propohtion of Matters Soluble and Insoluble in Water in Clover-produce of Plots 5 to 12. 100 parts of Fresh Clover contained : Substances Substances Moisture. Soluble Insoluble iu Water. in Water. Plot 5 mown since June 2 .. . . .. 78-80 8-70 12-50 ,,6 ,, 9 .. . . .. 73-20 10-79 16-01 ,, 7 ,, 16 .. . . .. 74-10 10-00 15-90 ,,8 ,, 23 .. . . .. 72-50 9-10 18-40 ,,9 ,, 30 . .. 65-20 13-60 21-20 ,,10 ,, July 7 . .. I 68-70 10-90 20-40 ,, 11 ,, 18 .. . . .. 1 64-01 12-19 23-80 ,, l:i ,, 28 .. . . .. 1 50-80 14-40 34-80 I and in the Stack in Haymaking. 100 parts of Dried Clover contained : 59 Substances Substances Moisture. Soluble in Water. Insoluble in Water. Plot 5 mown since June 2 41-04 58-96 ,,6 9 40-30 59-70 ,, 7 16 38-61 61-39 ..8 23 33-09 66-91 >, 9 30 39-08 60-92 ,,10 July 7 34 -83 65-17 ,, 11 18 33-89 66-11 ,, 12 28 29-27 70-73 In comparing the preceding results with each other, it must be borne in inind that the clover at the later periods of mowing contained very much less water than at the earlier stages of growth, and that therefore the comparison ought to be made on the dry clover dried at 212°. There are one or two discrepancies in the results which I do not pretend to be able to explain ; for instance, the clover on the plot which was mown on the 30th of June contained 61 per cent, of crude woody fibre, and the plot which was mown on the 23rd of June about 7 per cent. more. Having obtained the anomalous result, I am bound honestly to state the result, and must not attempt to make corrections or shape the scheme so as to agree well with the rest. On the whole, however, it is clearly seen that by allowing clover-hay to get overripe it diminishes in quantity, and gets more woody and less nutritious the longer it is kept on the land. Laboratory, 11, Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, E.C. Februai^, 1867. III. — Rinderpest Precautions and Memedies. SiE, — The following are the Cattle Plague notes, which were made, according to your request, in the course of my last summer's ramble among English herds. First, then, as regards precautions against the disease. As soon as it broke out in Sussex, Mr. Dumbrell, of Ditchling, who had upwards of a hundred Alderneys in milk, commenced washing them all over every morning with a weak solution of chloride of lime before they were put out to graze ; the same disinfectant was kept standing in earthen vessels behind the stalls ; the feeding-troughs and the drains were CO Rinderpest Precautions and Remedies. also sluiced out with it daily ; and every cow was tarred just above the nostrils. This herd was in a position of no ordinary danger, as three owners of adjacent land were losing beasts, and the infected farms were only separated from Mr. DumbrelFs by ,1 hedge. A fourth herd was also suffering within a quarter of a mile. One of Mr. DumbrelFs shippons was bounded by the high road on one side and by a footpath on the other, but the cows were kept as private as possible, and no fat stock was l)rought on to the farm. These precautions were attended with complete success. Major Gunter's Wetherby farm was in a deeply-infected parish, and cattle were dying or being slaughtered almost daily, close up to the park gates, for months. Chloride of lime was used liberally, but the Major's main reliance was on the very strictest observance of the isolation principle. The Duchesses and the rest of the cattle were divided into several lots of two each, and placed in small sheds all over the six hundred acre occupation ; the yards attached to these sheds were netted round the bottom, so as to keep out dogs, hares, rabbits, and other " travellers." The herdsman and his assistants never went near any other cattle or person engaged about cattle on any pretence whatever ; and if the Major had been out hunting, or anywhere else in the country, he never entered the sheds until he had changed his clothes. One valuable bull was slaughtered after a slight accident, rather than run the risk of bringing a veterinary surgeon to attend upon him ; and when the butcher came for fat sheep they were driven out of the field for him Avhile he waited with his dog on the road. The Warlaby herd were in nearly as great peril, and had an equally happy escape. For six months the plague was Avithin 1^ miles of them, and nearly three hundred beasts went down cither by disease or pole-axe. The last outbreak was within 400 yards of the farm-buildings, and the fate of this great herd seemed to tremble in the balance. Vaccination and Macdougall's disinfectant were freely used, but Mr. Thomas Booth's main reliance was on burning tar in braziers at several points of the farm-yard. These fires were carefully looked to the last thing at night and the very first thing in the morning, and might have been smelt down wind for a couple of miles. So much for successful preventives — quantum valeant. Secondly, as to remedies. In the case of Mr. Davies, of Mere Old Hall, near Knutsford, preventive measures failed, simply, as he believes, because, when the grass came, he placed his cattle in the field for a short time daily, out of the influence of chlorine gas. In this belief he is confirmed by the experience of his near neighbour Lord Egerton of Tatton, whose milch cows and feeding- Rinderpest Precautions and Remedies. 61 stock were subjected to the same treatment, but never allowed to leave the shippons. Hence, in spite of a severe attack of the plague on several farms in the vicinity of the Tatton Home Farm, they all escaped, while some of the West Highland bullocks in the park went down. Chlorine gas was quite the fashion in Cheshire, and as farmers were very "jealous " of contagion, every rural policeman carried, at the suggestion of Professor Stone, a wooden kit with him, as well as a waterproof bag, for disinfect- ing his dress. The kit had four compartments for bottles of muriatic acid, chlorate of potash, Stockholm tar, and "soap and sundries." The two former generate chlorine gas by contact, and a iew drops of the tar poured upon some hot cinders will dis- infect boots or clogs when suspended on a poker within reach of its vapour. The inspection dress is made of strong calico and fashioned like a diver's, and it is fumigated and made ready for the next visit by putting it into the bag along with a perforated box in which chlorine gas has been generated and retained on pumice stone. Mr. Davies' shippon is at the junction of three roads leading to Chester, Warrington, and Knutsford, and in the centre of a district through which the plague wended the same fatal way that it did in the last century — commencing near Warrington and coming along the low ground. In the small township of Tabley alone 662 beasts died ; 41 were slaughtered, and only 20 per cent, were left. It skipped some farms and attacked others, and it would sometimes in its later stages take one cow and return to the same herd for another victim at the lapse of three weeks. Cleanliness was of no avail, and some of the very worst kept shippons escaped. Mr. Davies's precautionary efforts were unintermitting from the first. Every beast about the place was vaccinated ; hyposulphite of soda, beginning at 3 lbs. and so on to 5 lbs., was mixed for four or five months in 100 gallons of water ; and chlorine gas was used night and day in the shippon. Sawdust was substituted for straw, in consequence of its absorbing ih.e fceces better, and being so much more easily removed. The cattle were never more blooming than when they were turned out in the middle of May, for a few hours daily, into a field adjoining the shippon and abutting on the high road. There was no infected farm nearer than a mile, but at the end of three weeks an Alderney heifer was taken ill and died in 36 hours. She had no symptom of illness about her except a slight discharge from the vagina, and until the veterinary surgeon opened her, he thought she was ruptured. The bull by which she had been recently served was slaughtered immediately, but there was no arresting the evil, and in two days more nine or ten were down with it. Leonora, from Mr. Jolly's, was the first decided case, 62 Rinderpest Precautions and Remedies. as they found her one morning with her back up, her coat staring, and her head and ears drooping ; but Lady Best from the late Mr. Langston's, Minstrel from Holker, Heiress from Mr. Hales's, Cherry Empress from Mr. Logan's, and Water Girl from the late Mr. Anthony Maynard's, soon followed suit. They sickened for three or four days, and on the fourth there was a strong dis- charge from the nose, eyes, and vagina. They could neither lie nor stand ; their legs and heads were never still, and their moanings were sad to hear. They would become feverish, and then shiver like a man in the ague, and theix fceces were quite lax and costive by turns. As they were very valuable stock, and Cheshire was at its wit's-end in the hope of discovering some alleviation or remedy, the local committee consented to have them treated, but every- thing was useless except the iodine ointment, a compound of iodine, mercury, and lard, which was recommended by Mr. Lawson, veterinary surgeon of Manchester. His object was to set up a counter-irritation if possible, and the ointment rubbed twice or thrice a day on the chest gave apparent relief. When applied in the early stage it seemed their only chance, but unfortunately it was not thought of till some of the best had died. The climax was generally on the fourth day, and those which died often lingered on about three days more. One old cow of the Towneley blood fought on for upwards of a fortnight. When the turn for the better came, frequent doses of oatmeal-gruel were administered. Up to that point they could not be got to take anything, as their mouths were sore with inflammation, and they did not even notice water. Countess of Barrington and Surmise were never so ill as the others, but they wasted to skin and bone, and it took them and seven others (which had all been treated with iodine oint- ment) several weeks to recover their bloom. None of these nine survivors out of thirty-six were able to carry their calves, but slunk them, a perfect mass of putridity, after which they " came to hand " much quicker. Mr. Aylmer, of West Dereham, grounded his treatment entirely on the administration of chloroform. When the plague broke out on this gentleman's farm last April, sixteen store bullocks were immediately slaughtered ; and of his shorthorn herd, which numbered ninety head, five died before treatment, and six were not attacked ; while forty-one recovered, and thirty-eight died under chloroform treatment. On April 4th the disease showed itself by simultaneously attacking Easthorpe Rose in the home shippon, and then Easthorpe Lady in the fen (which is 11 miles distant) ; and, on the 11th, Henrietta was taken ill at the White House Farm, within 300 yards of Mr. Aylmer's residence. The herd, which its owner always regrets having turned into the Rinderpest Precautions and Remedies. 63 fields so early, was, like Mr. Davies's, of far too much value to be given up to tlie pole-axe without an effort, and hence, by the advice of Mr. Anthony Hamond, and with the ultimate sanction of the Privy Council and the assistance of Mr. Robert Overman, of Egmere, who had cured six by that agency already, Mr. Aylmer determined to try chloroform. " A friend in need is a friend indeed," and with very occasional absences, Mr. Over- man worked day and night at West Dereham for nearly two months. They commenced on the 12th, when five had gone down, and a staff of seventeen or eighteen men were soon in regular hospital work. The cattle were kept as warm as possible, and covered with sheets in their sheds — which were made still more snug by hanging curtains of sailcloth or sacking in front of them — and the disease was always allowed to develope itself in the mouth before the treatment began. They were also kept on as short commons as possible, and their mouths Avere examined the moment their appetites failed. Still there was no exact rule in the matter. Some were heavily smitten and full of mouth- symptoms when the appetite was good and the dew was on the nose. The fat cows were uniformly the worst cases ; and the one ear down, the drooping eyelid, and the nervous twitch of the head, were among the sure and certain symptoms of seizure. Some became quite mad with pain, and broke their horns and tore out their teeth with convulsive rushes at the manger ; when- ever the air lodged in the tissues, and the skin was swollen up some inches from the flesh, nothing could bring them round. It was found in practice that the chloroform acted best on an empty stomach, and that it could be applied too soon after the premonitory symptoms. A white steer, among others, which inhaled for seven days, and relapsed at the end of a fortnight, was certainly dealt with too soon. In fact, looking back upon the cases, both Mr. Aylmer and Mr. Overman believe, that with their present experience, they could have saved many more with half the quantity of chloroform. The bulls were as easy to chloroform as the cows, and they were onp and all cast and bound to prevent them breaking their horns. With some young bulls the chloroform acted too severely on the kidneys, and fatal inflammation of the bladder and urinary canal set in. After this, diuretics and alkaline solutions were used to neutralise the salts of the urine, and in two or three cases it had the desired effect. Full-grown beasts had an ounce of chloroform administered to them each time, calves a quarter of an ounce, and others in pro- portion to their age. A saturated handkerchief was simply put in a bag, which was hung close under the nostrils, and tied by 64 Rinderpest Precautions and Remedies. a string behind the poll. Five to seven minutes was generally sufficient to produce insensibility, and the cattle wei'e kept under the influence for periods of from half-an-hour to two hours. Seven or eight doses upon the average were generally found sufficient to effect a cure. Rosa Lee had seventy-four inhalations between April 19th and June 18th, and five others had from forty-eight to sixty. General Hopewell, which was hired from Mr. Thomas Booth at 200 gs. for the season, was a very anxious and curious case, as his general external symptoms were healthy but his mouth very bad. He was only ill three days, and had six inhalations, but his cure became hopeless, and he was killed on the fourth. Master Jolly fought hard for a month, but fifty- two inhalations only kept the disease under, and failed to cure him. The leading effect of the chloroform was to convert the breath of the cattle from a very foul into a perfectly pure state. Before the administration the stench from their fevered mouths was fearful, and in a few minutes the breath became " as sweet as a nut." The inflammation of the mouth also seemed very much subdued, and the blood-shot fiery eye, under its influence, gradually grew quite natural again. It appears to neutralise the poison in the system, while the suspended vitality gives the constitution rest and enables it to " spar for time." The fever usually returned in not less than twelve hours, and if it kept away for more than forty-eight they were generally safe, and ready for linseed tea, oatmeal gruel, and other stimulants. Still the disease was most treacherous. They would rise up, eat hay, and drink water after chloroform as if nothing had happened, and then, when every- thing seemed going on well, they would relapse and become as ill as ever. However, after all this care and anxiety, Mr, Aylmer found himself, before July, with a clean bill of health, and with upwards of 50 per cent, of those which had been treated, alive and well in their stalls. All of those which were in calf went their full time, and the calves showed no traces of the crisis through which the dams had passed. The treatment was originally suggested by Dr. Dickson, author of 'The Fallacies of the Faculty.' Such are the principal facts as to precautions and remedies which I gathered in the course of my tour, and I leave them without comment in your hands. Yours, &c., Henry H. Dixon. P, Frerk, Esq. ( 65 ) IV. — Rainfall, Water Supply, and Storage. By Prof. Ansted. Part II.* 11. — Natural Surface-Drainage. Of the water falling on the earth as rain part will before long be re-evaporated into the atmosphere, while part will run off in streams, and so ultimately enter the earth, and there be lost sight of, at least for a time. Since the history of the portion evaporated belongs rather to meteorology than to our present inquiry, it is enough to remark here that the proportion evaporated, though differing in different places, is generally at least 14 inches. It depends partly on the form of the ground, partly on the absorbent or non-absorbent character of the rock, and partly on the general climate of the country, but chiefly on the actual state of the atmosphere. With these observations, we may now endeavour to trace nature's provision for the circulation of water on the earth's surface. Almost all definite natural divisions of the land consist of a surface, partly mountainous or hilly, partly of plains lying between these elevated tracts, at some height above the sea, and partly of low flats near the sea-level. Each of these affects the natural drainage, and beyond a doubt, the principal details, if not the grand features of the land, are due to the action of water that has fallen on the surface as rain. In any country on the higher ground, and among the moun- tains if they exist, the rainfall will be heaviest, and the course of the rain down the steep slopes will be most rapid. The collected waters will form the head-waters of the principal streams. Thus, in England, the sources of some of the largest and most rapid rivers are to be found in the mountains of Wales. But in all countries it is chiefly to the hills and lower undula- tions that we must look for the minute history of the surface- drainage, and the position of the hills governs in effect the drainage of the country. In our own country the higher hills and mountains are on the western side of the island, and we have already seen that the rainfall is heaviest there. It is also an important fact that in England the gentle slopes of the hills, and the longer dis- tances from the hill tops to the sea, are everywhere rather to the east and south than to the west and north. This is favourable to the production of streams large in proportion to the area of the land. Thus the natural drainage is clearly defined. The water leaps down the mountain sides, and it runs briskly and rapidly * Continued from vol. ii., p. 79. ^ VOL. III. — S. S. F 66 Rainfall, Natural Drainage, down the steep slopes of the valleys, but as It gets lower and meets other stieams, and at length attains a more definite cha- racter, it becomes a deeper and steadier body, and moves with a more regulated pace until it reaches the lower plains. It then advances more slowly, and is more easily turned aside by impe- diments. It assumes a serpentine course, winding in and out, and depositing from time to time part of the load of mud, sand, and stone that has been brought into it by its numerous tributaries. Throughout its course it appears to follow exactly the undula- tions of the ground, but a careful search will show that this course is really governed by the geological structure of the country, and by the hardness or softness of rocks which are now out of sight, and covered with a great thickness of transported material. A knowledge of the laws that govern the natural surface- drainage of a country is very essential to the agriculturist in laying out a system of drainage that shall fall in with and not oppose nature. In some parts of England, as in the upper part of the valley of the Thames, the lower part of the valley of the Severn, the middle and lower parts of the Trent valley, and many of the streams in Lancashire and Yorkshire, the natural surface drainage is especially instructive and exhibits clear proof of the effect of weather, and the eroding action of running water. Some of the streams that run into the sea on the east coast, between the Norfolk coast and the Humber, exhibit remarkably well the results produced when water runs over perfectly level tracts. Many of our rivers have changed their channels considerably within the historic period. That proportion of the whole rainfall of a district that is carried by the streams to the sea must vary extremely. It varies, however, according to certain natural conditions, and admits of modifica- tion by the results of human labour and cultivation. It is calcu- lable in a limited district, and various estimates concerning it, more or less accurate, have been made in our own country and elsewhere. Thus in the west of Lancashire, with a somewhat heavy rainfall amounting to about 34^^ inches, and in a limited area of hard non-absorbent sandstone rock, with very little vege- tation, as much as 26 inches, or fully three-fourths of the total rainfall, has been collected into a reservoir placed to intercept and bring together all the natural channels of escape. This is the result of observations ranging over several years, and taken with great care, but it is no doubt an extreme example of maxi- mum drainage. In the case of river systems, where the whole of the land which would naturally fall towards the affluents of a river down to a certain point, is assumed as the drainage area, the pro- and Suhterraiiean Water Storage. 67 portion is far smaller. Thus the river Severn drains 3890 square statute miles of mountain, hilly, and plain country, before it passes Gloucester. At that point of its progress about twenty-three parts in a hundred, or rather less than one-fourth of the whole rainfall, passes down in the year. The river Thames at Staines has drained 3086 square statute miles of hill and plain, and wide valleys, and there discharges about thirty-three parts in a hundred, or one-third of the rainfall of the district. The river Seine was long- ago estimated by Arago to carry off about one-third of the rainfall, and as the country it drains is not unlike that of the Thames drainage area, the correspondence is striking and satis- factory. In all these cases the country is partly under cultivation, but much more so in the valley of the Thames and Seine than in that of the Severn. In other countries similar results have been obtained. Thus the Saone, a rapid stream draining much mountain and uncultivated land far from the sea, and joining the Rhone, discharges into that river nearly three-fifths of the esti- mated total rainfall of the drainage area, while the Tiber is believed to carry off as much as seven-tenths. The calculations however, with regard to these rivers, are of doubtful accuracy. In the case of the great river Mississippi and its numerous large feeders, it is believed, from tolerably certain data, that only one- fourth part of the total rainfall of the drainage area reaches the gulf of Mexico. Thus in a general way we may consider that from one-fourth to one-third part of the rain that falls runs along over the surface to the ocean. The result of human labour and cultivation on the natural drainage of a country is in all cases to increase the quantity of water carried off, and to carry off the water more quickly. By the clearing away of forest, and by all kinds of artificial drainage, both these results are obtained ; and such works, though they may at first seem simple agricultural improvements, have a marked influence on the climate and physical features of the country operated upon. When Fens, like those of the East of England or Holland, are laid dry by lifting the water, when straight cuts are made to relieve tortuous watercourses, when by deep drainage we actually bring back to the surface water that was already on its way into the rocks, the quantity of water that reaches the sea is increased, and this extra quantity is abstracted from that which would otherwise have entered the earth and circu- lated through it. There are no data by which we can judge of the exact difference, but in proportion as a district becomes drained it is certain that all the causes alluded to must act with increasing intensity, and may ultimately seriously interfere with the sub- terranean storage. Let us then, in the next place, consider this subject of storage a little more in detail. F 2 68 Rainfall, Natural Drainage, in. — Subtekranean'Water-storage. ^' That part of the rainfall which enters the earth, serves to supply and renew the natural and artificial spring's, modify the condition of strata, and to promote, or by its excess to injure, vegetation. The proportion of rainfall which enters the earth will depend not only on the nature of the soil and rock, the form of the ground, and the total rainfall, but on the mode in which rain falls. Where it falls in very heavy showers, there will be a large pro- portion carried off along the surface. Where rain is light and frequent, although the fall may be represented by a smaller number of inches, a larger quantity will soak into the strata. But although this is a general rule, it must also be remembered that during long droughts the earth becomes cracked, and that the cracks in time may become deep and then wide, and capable of receiving an enormous proportion of the first rains that fall. I have myself seen in the south of Spain marly sandstones, otherwise not very permeable, cracked so widely and deeply that they offered great impediments in getting across the country. Clays also are not unusually cracked in some parts of England to a depth of six or eight feet, or more, in an ordinary summer ; and in hot countries gorges are thus formed many yards deep, and so wide that a horse can hardly be got across them. It is at any rate evident that in all places, and under all circumstances, a large and important part of the rainfall must sometimes enter the earth. It is also clear that, Avhen there, it has no means of escape, except by subterranean channels or by filtration through the solid rock. But such filtration is not difficult. The peculiarly broken and cracked condition of hard limestones and other brittle rocks renders them capable of receiving very large quantities of water, while all the softer limestones are eminently porous and absorbent even in their solid mass. Hard rocks are always fissured, and often cavernous. Limestones abound with extensive open spaces, and in some cases these contain lakes ; in others large rivers run through them. The great caverns of Adelsberg in Carinthia, and Kentucky in North America, are examples of this ; and many others nearer home, on a smaller scale, as in Derbyshire, York- shire, Somersetshire, and South Wales, will suggest themselves to every reader. But sandstones of the harder kind are also fissured ; and granites invariably abound with joints, leading occasionally to open spaces, so that Avater can be reached and obtained from them by the ordinary operations of well-sinking. Mining- deve- lopes very clearly the peculiarities of all these rocks, and exhibits and Subterranean Water Storage. 69 tliem broken and cracked, and allowing water either to pass through them out of sight, or collect into pools and open spaces in the interior of the earth. It cannot be necessary to point out that the effect of a thorough system of artificial drainage in a large district must be to carry the rainfall beneath the surface both inore rapidly and more completely than would be the case otherwise — more rapidly because it is conveyed at once into straight watercourses, avoid- ing friction, and shortening distances ; and more completely because there is time allowed for considerable quantities to penetrate'far down in places where the natural absorbing surfaces of rock would act slowly. This is especially the case where the surface of a rock is covered by a thick coating of vegetable soil, because it must then be very liable to become choked. It requires only a very superficial examination of rocks to discover how fit they are to absorb water, and how it is that they have become so fit.* All rocks, without exception, that have been long exposed to the air have become weathered, and a part of this weathering consists in the production of innumerable cracks on the exposed surface. In very hard rocks these are often dependent on the presence of particular minerals or of veins of foreign material ; but in the hardest granite there is always some way in which moisture can enter, and once there its alternate expansion and contraction due to changing temperature, espe- cially near the point of greatest density of water (about 39^ F.), is sure to destroy the texture very rapidly. A few examples of the observed influence of weather on rocks of different kinds may be useful. I will give only some results of personal inves- tigation in various parts of the world. Of all rocks it might be supposed that the granites were those most able to resist weathering ; and no doubt some varieties do resist atmospheric action to a very great extent ; but all rocks of this kind consist of alternate veins of harder and softer material. Of some the harder is the largest in quantity. Such rocks are valuable for building, and are little affected by weather ; but even in such hard granites there is always a certain amount of change produced in time — the surface becomes rough, some of the crystals are decomposed, and plants find room for their small rootlets in the crevices thus formed. Many of the softer varieties show the results of weather much more clearly. In a quarry one inay often find that the recently cut face of the stone is discoloured to a depth * It must be remembered that all rocks withiu the earth were originally depo- sited with, and under water, aud have never since been deprived of this water completely. Throughout all changes that may have taken place in their compo- sition water has always been present. 70 Rainfall, Natural Drainage, of some feet or even yards. Wherever this discoloration 'has taken place, the rock is softer and contains more moisture, and the surface is full of crevices : here the work of destruction has begun. In the Channel Islands, remarkable for their excellent granite, there may be seen at least twenty feet of the stone on which part of the town of St, Peter Port, Guernsey, is built reduced to such a state that it can be dug out with a spade. In Jersey, behind St. Aubin's, there is a thickness of at least thirty feet of a kind of gravel, which is nothing more than the loosened crystals of the felspar and quartz of the granite decomposed by weathering, and quite disintegrated. Close by, the same rock juts out in isolated masses into the sea. In Alderney the centre of the island contains innumerable round boulders of granite entirely the result of decomposition ; and yet from these islands are obtained some of the hardest, toughest, and most enduring granites in common use. So again I remember seeing among the grand basaltic columns of the Giant's Causeway, in the North of Ireland, the roots of plants twined round the slices of six- sided columns ten or fifteen feet below any point exposed to the air. The rock itself seems indestructible, but the traces of decay are evident on close investigation. These are but a few instances out of many in which I have seen crystalline rock affected by weather to a great depth without any other cause than the pene- tration of moisture by absorption. 1 may safely say that I have never in any part of the world seen a natural or artificial face of granite or basalt exposed without finding evidence of the destroy- ing power of weather, acting always by aid of water penetrating within the mass. Besides destruction of this kind, the joints of granite frequently contain water, and sometimes yield it in large quantity from artesian wells. Sandstones of all kinds exhibit weathering, and water pene- trates them to great depths. The softer varieties of sandstone are easily cracked during even a short continuance of dry weather. When rain comes it fills these fissures, and penetrates yet more deeply. All sandstones are more or less porous, and in this way admit moisture. All are more or less distinctly bedded, and they generally allow water to pass along in the intervals between the beds. All, again, are more or less cracked and fissured at the surface. The chemical effect of water in dissolving and decomposing is less seen in sandstones than in granites, except when the sandstone is impure, and contains marl, calcareous cement, or a mixture of mica and felspar. In such cases the result is soon seen, and is often very great. On the whole, there are no rocks that admit water so slowly as pure crystalline sand- stones and quartzlte, and none that are more absorbent than soft, loose, rotten sands Avith which marl is intermixed. and Subterranean Water Storage. 71 The facility with which sandstones absorb water is illustrated by the quantity of water they contain both in their ordinary state and when saturated. Even granite always contains a certain percentage of water, and in the dry state is rarely without one and a half pint in every cubic foot. Sandstones, however — even those fit for building purposes — may contain half a gallon per cubic foot, and loose sands at least two gallons. When the water is present in any part of a rock, it readily diffuses itself owing to the force of capillary attraction ; but although the diffusion is rapid from a moist to a dry part of any rock, however close its texture, the rate at which a fluid collects in cavities from a stone not absolutely surcharged is extremely slow. This is especially the case with sandstones. Limestones contain very large quantities of water, not only in cavities underground, but in crevices of the rock, in spaces between strata, and in faults. Dry compact limestones contain half a gallon of water in every cubic foot. Bath stone contains at least a gallon, and some magnesian limestones one and a half gallon. Chalk is as absorbent as loose sand, and contains at least two gallons per cube foot when saturated. It is not easy to realise the magnitude of these quantities, although the results have been determined very accurately by calculation and experiment. If we limit our estimate to an area of the chalk downs 50 miles in length, 10 miles wide, and 300 feet thick, we shall find that the total annual rainfall on the surface (taken at 30 inches per annum) will amount to 225,750,000 gallons ; while the water contents of the rock, if only half satu- rated, would be more than 660,000,000 gallons, or nearly three years' total rainfall, and fully twelve years' average supply even if there were no loss by evaporation, and no circulation under- ground. It must be evident then that there is an unlimited power of absorption in such rocks ; and as water is distributed through them rapidly and thoroughly, they may be regarded as large receptacles partly filled, but in which the water is con- stantly in circulation, rising and falling according to the influence of past and present Aveather. The longest succession of the driest seasons can never exhaust them : the heaviest rains re- peated for years can never fill them. Other absorbent rocks exhibit the same general features in a different degree, and all assist in the general circulation, the water-level rising after rain, and sinking by evaporation during drought, so as never to leave the surface either absolutely wet or perfectly dry. And this is the case not only with chalk, which is itself absorbent in the strict sense of the word, but with hard, brittle limestones, that seem to admit water only by the cracks and fissures at their surface. I have noticed in the Ionian Islands 72 Rainfall, Natural Drainage, remarkable instances of this. On the steep flanks of a lofty moun- tain, in the middle of Cephalonia, there is an accumulation of loose, ans^ular fragments of limestone rock standing at the natural angle. On this heap there neither is nor can be an atom of soil. The rain when it falls is very heavy, and would carry down to the bottom any loose particles that might be conveyed thither by man or formed by nature : the rain itself also must sink at once to the bottom. On this heap of bare stones the vine not only grows but flourishes, and the grape ripens admirably. The rootlets twine round the stones, and they manage to extract from them and from the air all the nourishment they require. I have often seen crops on stony ground, but nowhere so marked an instance as this of the resources that exist in solid naked rock under favourable circumstances. It is only clays and similar tenacious rocks that do not freely admit of the passage of water. Even these admit it slowly and imperfectly, and they always contain moisture. The amount of the water contents varies according to weather, and the water is here also in circulation, though slowly. These tenacious rocks, however, greatly assist in the distribution and circulation of water in the earth in another way. Passing freely where the soil is open, water is checked in its course where the rock becomes compact and impermeable. As these alternations occur some- times in parallel and horizontal strata or layers, sometimes in strata inclined to the horizon, sometimes in vertical or nearly vertical planes, there is every possible variety of direction in the course taken by the water. This is a matter that cannot be even guessed at Avithout a knowledge of the geology of the district. With clays we must rank all such tenacious rocks as act in a similar manner, and shut off communication. Thus, various shales, slates, and marls are impermeable ; while others, even if partially permeable, act as impermeable rocks, and divert the course of underground waters. The former rank as clays, and the latter as grits or limestones, according as the sandy or cal- careous element preponderates. It is not only by their nature, composition, and texture that rocks and certain strata shut off water ; in many countries the rocks have been broken while being upheaved by mecha- nical pressure from below ; and when broken, part of a stratum has often been lifted up so as to occupy a position altogether different from the rest. An absorbent rock may thus, by dis- placement, be made to abut against a non-absorbent rock. A crack may be opened in a series of rocks down which water may be conveyed, or up which it may rise, according to the condition of adjacent rocks. Communication may also be thus made with the interior of the earth, and with places where some chemical and Siibterranean Water Storage. 73 action is going on, where water is heated or converted into steam, and whence jets of mineralized water may be forced upwards. Such conditions modify and complicate the phe- nomena, but they do not affect the general explanation. The disturbances that have resulted only in the tilting or partial lifting up of strata act in one way, and those disturbances that have broken and displaced them act in another, so far as water is concerned, but both help in the distribution and circulation of the water through the earth. So, again, the filling up of fissures caused by disturbances may entirely shut off whole districts from the passage of water, and cause the water to collect in certain strata to an unusual extent. This is a fact very familiar to all who have had to do with coal mining, where faults (as these disruptions of strata are called) are very common and systematic, and where very serious accidents have happened from breaking through them when they shut ofl' water from sur- rounding strata. On the other hand, they as frequently carry off as hold back water ; and in the broken coal-fields of England and Belgium they always play a very important part in the underground drainage. Those fractures of rock, that are technically called axes (anti- clinal or synclinal), also affect the underground passage of water. Their action may best be studied in the natural sections pre- sented in cliffs or railway cuttings. Such sections show the strata dipping away from or towards each other, and meeting at an angle. It is evident that if of such strata some are permeable and others impermeable, the water passing through the former will have a tendency to escape at the angle made by the rocks that have been thus broken while being lifted up. Practically, then, the effect of faults and axes will be to cany the water down to the permanent level of absolute saturation, and assist in this way in its general progress through the interior of the earth. Water thus passing into rocks from above, and passing also amongst them, cannot but be regarded as " circulating " in the earth's interior. Of such circulation evidence is offered by every natural and artificial spring, whether issuing from a hill side or rising from an artesian boring in a valley, and by the condition of rocks seen in quari'ies or reached in mines. It is owing to the presence of water in and amongst rocks, and in the fissures that are formed in them during and after elevation, that their various metamorphoses or changes of appearance can be produced. Pressure, together with the chemical action arising from heat, no doubt affects strata ; but the changes that have taken place involve not only the mechanical presence, but the chemical action of water, dissolving away many substances as it passes through a rock, and leaving behind many others. Even 74 Rainfall^ Natural Drainage^ when no change of mineral species is effected, there is frequently an atomic change in rocks, such as is shown in the rearrangement of the particles from mechanical aggregation to crystalline texture. For this water is necessary. The soft clay, moulded on some organic body — a cockle-shell or the fragment of a bone in an altered state — is thus found to afford important evidence of the condition of the earth's interior, and the movements that have taken place there. But it may be desirable to explain a little more fully the law of nature in reference to springs of water. The ordinary arrangement of rocks is that of stratification. They have been originally deposited horizontally with and from water, but they have since undergone great change. The water in fact has been partially got rid of, and the mud consolidated. They have also been thrust up from being below the sea to a position sometimes many thousands of feet above that level, and in the elevation some portions have been broken, and very large quantities have been pared away by water action. Thus limestones have become cavernous, sandstones are full of crevices, and the whole mass has been shut off into boxes, having very slow communication one with another. Thus, also, water entering a second time and from above, sinks down, penetrating every crevice, occupying every cavity, carried on from one box to another, or filling one before passing on to the next, running down hill whenever the strata admit it, often forced up hill when there is pressure behind and there are no other means of escape ; and, in a word, circu- lating among and through the strata, and the faults and joints produced in them, and while simply obeying its own laws, conveying the means of chemical change from one part of the earth to every other part, and from the surface to the greatest depth to which strata reach. In all strata there is at some depth, great or small, a surface of absolute saturation. If this surface be reached by a well or boring, or if it be intersected by a natural cliff or hillside, or by an artificial cutting, the water will escape, or can be brought to the surface by pumping. To this depth the rock will always absorb. Below it water will be yielded up. But it may, and often does happen, that long before reaching the depth below which the whole rock is saturated, there are extensive sheets of water kept back by impermeable strata. These also, when reached or intersected, yield water, but if penetrated, the water would pass downwards to the rocks below, and the wet rock become drained. There are thus sur- faces of partial saturation. By sinking to or below these surfaces extensive and important results have been effected, both in well- sinking and drainage. It is easy to see that two very different conditions of the water and Subterranean Water Storage. 75 are conceivable. It might remain at rest beneath the partial or absolute surface of saturation, having found its natural level, exposed to reduction only from evaporation taking place in the rock above it : it would then be in the condition of water in a tank. But it might circulate between two impermeable strata, and run between them from one point underground to another, and in this case it must act as if confined in a tube. In the former case, the strata above can never be absolutely dry, because if there be any M^ater whatever in an absorbent rock, a part at least is distributed through the mass. This I have myself proved by actual experiment in the case of chalk.* It is also clearly indicated by the vegetable growth that takes place on the surface of limestone, apparently quite dry during the whole of a perfectly rainless summer in hot countries. This also is a fact within my own personal experience. Whenever water is present in a rock, it is distributed through it, but there is more below than above. The distribution takes place by capillary action, and cannot be checked, but the reservoir is in the lower part of the rock. If then into such rock or rocks so situated, having even at great depth a surface of absolute saturation, we penetrate to such surface, we shall certainly reach water. This is the case of land sprinf/s, commonly so called. It differs mechanically from the case of Artesian springs. Although water percolates with a certain amount of freedom through rocks of all kinds, there must always be a great deal of friction in the operation, so that time is needed to effect the dis- tribution, even under the most favourable circumstances. Thus, in the case of land springs of the ordinary kind in sands and gravels, the effect of a single shower may perhaps be recognised within four-and-twenty hours. Where the gathering ground is larger, and the deposit thicker, a wet season may actually leave the springs lower than before, while a subsequent dry season may be followed or accompanied by an unusual flow of water. This must happen when the position of the surface of saturation is so far removed from immediate influence as to need months or a year or two to convey the water from the surface of the ground. But if absorbent or loose strata act as tubes or pipes, the water contained in them will be forced on by a pressure corre- sponding to that of a vertical column of water, equal in height to the depth from the surface of permanent wetness, or that at which the impermeable beds are entered, and where, therefore, the pipe condition begins. It will not be equal or nearly equal to" the full calculated result of such pressure, because of the friction, which greatly diminishes the force, but still the pressure * See Excerpt 'Minutes of Transactions of Soc. of Ci\il Engineers.' 76 Rainfall, Natural Drainage, may be sufficient to lift the water towards or above the actual surface from which it is pierced, or at which it is intersected, provided the level of such surface is sufficiently below that of the gathering ground. The wells bored through various rocks to reach absorbent and saturated strata at some depth lying between impermeable strata of any kind, are well known under the name Artesian, having been introduced into Europe during the middle ages in the province of Artois, in the north of France. Similar wells have, however, been known, and sunk from time immemorial in various parts of the East, and in the desert of Africa. It would at once be admitted that water is constantly in circulation if, wherever we sunk through permeable beds, we always found a surface below which everything was saturated — and if, whenever we penetrated impermeable beds, and reached absorbent beds below them, these latter always yielded a supply of water rising in the well or boring. But it is known that these results do not always follow, and, although generally the reason of failure in water-sinkings is that the surface of saturation is too deep to be available, or the impermeable beds too thick to be pierced, it is certain that the best expectations founded upon sound knowledge of strata have sometimes been disappointed. Such failures might induce the notion that the circulation of water was only partial, and confined to certain rocks ; and in one sense this is true, for the ready transmission of available quantities of water is no doubt so limited. Many rocks interrupt it, many distur- bances of rock interfere with it, and some rocks and disturb- ances have the effect of checking it altogether. But in addition to the perceptible and available circulation, here is another which is not less important, and is quite uni- versal. Clays and granites, and some other rocks, only allow of the free passage of water through cracks and fissures in their mass ; and they certainly prevent the flow of water when they come in the way and are unbroken. But amongst them water is always moving, though this kind of circulation is not to be measured and recognised by the eye. The best proof of it is found in the chemical changes constantly taking place in them, as in all other rocks that form the external crust of the earth. All, with- out a single exception, have been entirely modified since they were deposited, and always by the aid and in the presence of water. The changes are incessant though slow. Crystallisa- tion is one of these results, and no one who examines a crystallised fragment of shell, and compares it with a corre- sponding fragment of its recent analogue, can doubt the extent of the change. The external characters of the shell may be preserved without the smallest alteration ; but within, while and Suhterranean Water Storage. 77 the mineral carbonate of lime is the same, in one case the atoms are arranged with perfect symmetry to form a tran- sparent crystal, in the other they have been bound tog-ether by laws of structure and by the presence of life. This is only one example out of many. Change in all respects is the rule, and not the exception, in all those deposits originally made in water, and now forming part of the earth's crust. The laws of this change are among the discoveries that may be looked forward to with confidence, but at present they are imperfectly tmder- stood. Thus, then, it appears that water exists, and is in constant circulation through the earth ; that, of the rain that falls, a cer- tain proportion entering the various rocks and strata is em- ployed in helping this process. The operation goes on inces- santly. It is not easy, nor indeed always possible, to determine where these surfaces of partial or absolute saturation may be. In every district a knowledge not only of the surface, but of the structure of the earth is necessary. In England the geologically- coloured maps of the Ordnance Survey afford an easy and ready means of applying general geology to local peculiarities, and learning as nearly as possible where the subterranean water channels exist, how they may be exhausted, and whence they might be replenished. IV. — Effects of Clearing, Cultivation and Drainage ON Water Supply. Water supply, derived from the clouds, distributed by rain, and afterwards returned to the sea by the aid of streams or utilised by organic structures, depends on the lorm of the land, the extent of adjacent land, the vicinity to mountains or ocean, the form of the mountains, much more than on latitude and longitude. It is modified also by the state of cultivation of the land, the extent and nature of forest and other vegetation, and the rapidity with which the rain that falls runs off or is absorbed into the surface, as I have already pointed out. The greater part of the land of the temperate zones, as Avell as within the tropics, was formerly covered with dense forest wherever circumstances were favourable for vegetation. Many districts less favourably situated for such vegetation than Eng- land are still covered with timber, and there are many parts of the continent now absolutely bare where dense forests have existed not long ago. Besides historic proof of this, in many cases there is also the evidence of our senses seen in the innu- merable branches, trunks, and roots of trees, dug up in old turbaries, in boggy tracts on mountain sides, and at the mouths 78 Rainfall, Natural Drainage, of streams once the outlets of mountain valleys. In Greece the whole country was wooded in the time of Homer, and probably for centuries afterwards. There is abundant proof that the period of destruction, even on the Mediterranean shores, commenced less than 2000 years ago, and had hardly affected a very large area till within the last thousand years. These shores are now, to a very great extent, absolutely bare of vegetation of all kinds. In discussing the influence of man, not only on the destruc- tion and growth of trees and crops, but as exerted on climate, it is quite necessary to appeal to figures and definite state- ments, as we should otherwise be accused of exaggeration. In America, the most recently cleared of all countries, it is certain that in the year 1860 there was an area of some 250,000 square miles of country (160 millions of acres) under profitable cultivation, replacing the same or nearly the same area of primaeval forest land that existed there 300 years ago. The climate and rainfall of North America before the disforesting are very imperfectly known, but all the evidence that exists favours the conclusion that the rainfall has diminished, that the streams have become more rapid, and that the climate is warmer in summer and cooler in winter. Northern Europe was in a similar way a country of forests in the time of Caesar, although now there are no large forest tracts remaining. There also the climate has changed, the rainfall has diminished, and the air is drier than before. Wherever civilized man appears the forest disappears, and cultivation takes its place. Let us consider the result of this change in the various elements of climate as far as we have facts to guide us. There is good proof that hail and other storms depending on electrical causes have been far less frequent and severe where forests have been cut down. This has been noticed especially in the Alps, where much wood has been removed within a short time. Nor is this remarkable, for very important chemical changes are caused by vegetation, and when these, after proceeding without interruption over thousands of square miles for many centuries, are suddenly and abruptly terminated, the result cannot but be felt. A surface covered by forest is generally believed to absorb more carbonic acid and exhale more oxygen than meadows or fields. But forests act, not only indirectly, but directly and very manifestly, on temperature. During a large part of the year cultivated lands are bare, or nearly so ; forest lands never. And this of itself is a very important matter. If the power of cal- careous sand to retain heat be taken at 100, arable calcareous soil may be represented by 74'3, argillaceous soil at 68"4, and common garden earth somewhat less. Humus, such as is and Subterranean Water Storage. 79 obtained from decayed leaves, ranks however at 49 ; and the soil that is clothed with forest will thus radiate heat twice as rapidly as that which is uncultivated and naked. In Italy the removal of forest has introduced the scirocco, the effect of which is unfavourable to life of all kinds, and many of the crops have suffered thereby. Near Ravenna a pine forest, extending' for about 22 English miles, being cut down, the scirocco was introduced, but was got rid of when the wood was allowed to grow again. In other parts of Italy, where the wood was cut down during the time of the French republic, to enable the manufacture of iron to be carried on, the result was at once seen in an increased severity of climate, the maize no longer ripening. The forests have since been restored, and the climate is restored also. In Belgium favourable results have been obtained by the planting of trees on the right bank of the Scheldt, where large tracts of land, formerly waste, have been rendered fertile. The produce of the plains of Alsace, in the east of France, has suffered since the forests of the Vosges were removed ; and the centre and south of France has felt the influence of the mistral and other injurious winds only since the forests of the Cevennes have been removed. The cultivation of certain plants and trees has thus become difficult or impossible where it was once easy and natural ; and as this has taken place within the period of history, and has followed the disforesting in every case where observation has been made, there can be little doubt as to the cause. Although it is difficult to verify with precision the extent of these changes of climate where accurate and detailed observations are wanting, still the testimony of experience and the comparison of historic accounts point to such a change in Europe within the last thousand years. These conclusions are fully justified and con- firmed by such tabular statements as exist, and are not contra- dicted by any statements, either of fact or opinion. They tend to show that throughout the north temperate zone the summers are cooler, moister, and shorter than they were for- merly ; and that, on the other hand, the winters are milder, drier, and longer, than when forests covered a great part of the land, and cultivation was the exception, and not the rule. It is certain that the rivers and streams have also undergone change, and that where their course has not been interfered with, they are more irregular now than formerly, passing more frequently into torrents, becoming dried up more frequently, and carrying off more rapidly the heavy rains. The influence of forests on rain is well recognised within the tropics and wherever in temperate latitudes there are means of observation. In all wooded and undrained countries the atmo- sphere is permanently humid, the rain and dew fertilise the soil. 80 Rainfall^ Natural Drainage^ and the general result is similar to that produced by the vicinity of the ocean. On the other hand, extensive tracts without wood are always dry and parched. Spain is an example of a country that has suffered much from the removal of the forests that once covered it. It is possible now to travel across hundreds of miles of the peninsula without seeing a tree except in the hollows and deep narrow valleys through which the streams run. Trees now refuse to grow on these plains, and it would take many years of careful management to replace the great forests that were once so common. But with the first belt of wood the condition of the climate would no doubt begin to alter. It would certainly be impossible to replace the old forests under the present climate, but the old climate would perhaps be restored if the natural vegetation were allowed to become arborescent or if trees were cultivated. Examples of this may be seen in Scotland, where in several places trees have been planted with very marked and favourable results. Even more striking, however, is the case of Egypt, where at the close of the last and beginning of the pre- sent century rain was a very rare phenomenon, not falling some- times once in twelve months. Since that time Mehemet Ali and. Ibrahim Pacha have planted very freely, to the extent it is said of twenty millions of trees, consisting of olive, fig, cotton-wood, orange, acacia, and plane. Rain now falls, not only on the coast, but in the interior during all the winter months. Forests affect the supply of water to springs as well as induce a larger quantity of rain over a given surface. This arises from the protection they provide against evaporation, and the time thus afforded to the moisture to penetrate beneath the surface. In America cases are recorded where springs have greatly and steadily decreased after the clearing of land, and Mr. Marsh, in his recently published work on ' ?vlan and Nature,' states : — " I remember one case where a small mountain-spring, which disappeared soon after the clearing of the ground where it rose, was recovered, about ten or twelve years after, by simply allow- ing the bushes and young trees to grow up on a rocky knoll not more than half an acre in extent immediately above it, and has since continued to flow uninterruptedly." In South America, in the valley of Aragua, in Venezuela, there was a town founded in 1555 half a league from a lake, the surrounding country being then clothed with forest. The forests were cut down, and in the year 1800 there had been for 30 years a large population on the spot. It was then visited by Humboldt, Avho found the town about two miles further from the lake than it had been, owing to the diminution of the water supply. Twenty-two years later political events had caused the reduction and removal of the population, and the forest had grown once more. The and Subterranean Water Storage. 81 ■waters of the lake had ag;ain risen, and had covered large tracts of land formerly under cultivation. Many other examples arc on record of results of the same nature following immediately on the change from forest land to cultivation, or conversely from cultivation to a fresh growth of forest. And it is clear that some such result must follow. When the earth is bare it parts more rapidly with its heat, and evapora- tion from the surface is more complete than when it is clothed with forest. A larger quantity of the rain that falls is also then retained near the surface for any limited time and the evapora- tion that afterwards takes place is slower and lasts longer. But even the precipitation of moisture as rain is less regular. Where the ground is bare a soil is longer in being formed, more liable to be removed by torrents, and the streams that flow through it or convey its rainfall to the sea necessarily become more rapid. Beneath a forest a swamp is often formed by the natural accumulation of trunks of trees and other vegetation, Avhile on cultivated land such a result is almost impossible. On the other hand, the rapid flow of rivers is more apt to pro- duce a bar or other impediment at the contact with the sea. England has suffered less than other parts of Europe from un- reasonable disforesting because from its geographical position there is almost always a supply of moisture both in the atmo- sphere and from rain, but it seems certain that a difference has there also taken place. There has been a change of climate in every essential sense of the Avord — a change in the mean tempe- rature, annual, monthly, and daily — a reduction in the range of temperature — a change in the amount and distribution of rainfall — and a change also in the habits of the rivers and streams. Many of the smaller of these have been entirely lost and sAval- lowed up, and some are canalised or otherwise altered in volume. They have also undergone alteration in the condition of the freshets, and in the usual period and amount of the maximum and minimum discharge of their waters. The actual quantity of woodland that should be left in a given area to secure a fair climate must evidently depend on many circumstances. In France the extent of the forests in 1750 was estimated at about 40 millions of English acres, while in 1860 the area had been reduced to one-half, or 20 millions. It is now believed that the former was not too much, and that at present a great increase is necessary if the climate and rainfall are to remain unaltered. There is certainly far too little forest in most parts of the continent of Europe.* * See Marsh's ' Man and Nature/ p. 28 ; Ansted's 'Physical Geography,' ISfie, p. 421. VOL. III.— S. S. G 82 Rainfall, Natural Drainage, But, after all, disforesting is only the commencement of the change. Each kind of cultivation involves some peculiar result of its own, for as a country becomes thickly peopled nature is made to bend in various ways to human convenience. First, there is the general drainage of swamps and bogs to render the country healthy and habitable, and then follow improvements in the course of the streams to confine them within definite channels that shall run as quickly as possible to the sea. By thus de- creasing the distance run the erosive power of the streams is increased, and therefore the conveying power of the water, so that one of the results of the clearing of a mountain-side may be the extension of a coast-line towards the ocean. Another result may be, as in the case of the river Po, the gradual elevation of the bed of the stream till its waters are carried between banks at a level higher than that of the surrounding country. In like manner the drainage of shallow pools helps to increase the mechanical effect of streams, while artificial embankments limit and divert the action of the sea, recovering tracts of land subject to tidal overflow, and converting them ultimately into fields and gardens. It must be evident that the evaporation that once acted over almost the whole surface of the land is now reduced to the narrow courses of the streams except immediately after heavy rains, and that the quantity of rain absorbed into the earth must be much smaller now that the surface is dry than when it was permanently moist. In this way, therefore, two direct and important results of the introduction of civilized man are at once recognized. It is true that in each particular case the calculable difference may be small, but when the whole surface is affected it is impossible that it should not be important. One thing also leads to another. The diminution of mist arising from permanent moisture on the surface increases greatly the radiation from the surface, and therefore the evaporation. The quality of the soil is thus altered by mechanical treatment, and the moisture needed is more rapidly absorbed and utilised by miscellaneous crops than by forest-trees. In every way the cultivation of the soil has a tendency to modify the proportion of rainfall that passes into the earth. It tends to increase this proportion by inducing in summer a greater action both of the sun and air in drying, and therefore cracking the surface, and during cold weather by exposing the rock more fre- quently to alternate expansions and contractions. On the other hand, it tends to diminish the proportion by running the water more rapidly from the surface and leaving a smaller quantity to soak into the strata. These are direct results. Indirectly, culti- vation, even without drainage, by rendering the air more clear during fine weather, and by increasing both the hourly and daily and Subterranean Water Storage. 83 mean range of temperature, must affect the mean annual rainfall. Drainage necessarily assists this action. It not only clears the surface of moisture still more rapidly than before, but it even carries off much of the water that had actually entered the soil and was on its way to the rock. Thus drainage affects the springs as well as the rainfall, and doubles the result. And although it is true that the rainfall in England depends very largely on the physical conditions of the British islands— on the vicinity, not only of a great ocean, but of a great and warm current of water and moist air crossing that ocean — on the presence of a mountain chain of moderate elevation on the western side of the island — on the general form of the land — on the adjacent lands of the continent of Europe — and on many other facts — still neither the total amount nor the distribution can fail to be influenced by those important and powerful causes to which I have directed attention. An alteration of a fraction of an inch per annum in the mean rainfall, the addition of an inch in the summer fall counterbalanced by the reduction of an inch in that of the winter months — these ma}' seem trifling, but if persistent they effect a real change of climate, and one which will in time show itself in the vegetable and animal productions that flourish under it. V. — ECONOMISATION OF WaTER SuPPLY. The practical value to the agriculturist of all that has been said on the subject of rainfall and water storage, and the results of cultivation on water supply, can best be measured by the extent to which he may hope to make use of such knowledge, either by adapting his methods of cultivation so as to take advan- tage of the result of change, or by enabling him to produce a modified climate, availing himself of natural causes of change. Incidentally he may also learn in this way the means of utilising and economising the supply of rain that comes to him in the ordinary course of nature. I think it will be evident, from all that has been said under the last heading of this article, that where all forests have been removed over large districts a combination of tree-cultivation with ordinary crops is calculated to equalise its summer and winter climates, to increase the yield from springs, and to restore to some extent the former conditions of climate. At the same time it must be remembered that in many respects the climate of England has been ameliorated rather than injured by the alterations that have taken place ; and that with us there must always be so large a rainfall that there is not the same need for this modification as in other countries of Europe, where G 2 84 ". Rainfall, Natural Drainage, the air is always drier. It is in France and Spain, and more especially in Greece and the Levant, that the removal of the forests has been injurious. In North America also, and in many of our colonies, the first business of the settler has alwavs been to destroy the wood. It is probable that in many cases the destruction has been carried too far, and that the climate has suffered. On the other hand, there can be little doubt that cultivation and planting with European trees is likely to improve in a very marked manner the climate of Australia, and increase the rainfall. Thus the advantages of planting, though not unimportant even in England, where the land has been left absolutely bare, are much more likely to be felt in other countries than at home ; and the English farmer must look rather to the shelter given to Inrds and other incidental advantages than to alteration of climate, if land that has once been cleared should be brought again under forest. But if the increase of forest lands is neither probable nor per- haps desirable in the British islands, except, perhaps, in the High- lands of Scotland, there are many important agricultural operations going on that admit of modification to some extent, and that also have influence on climate and water-supply. At present it is usual to limit the operation of drainage to the construction and keeping in order of channels that shall carry off all surface- water as rapidly as possible to the sea. It may be doubted whether in many places, where the form of the country lends itself to such purposes, it would not be advisable to collect this drained water into reservoirs, at various levels, whence in dry seasons it might be made use of for irrigation, or for other pur- poses. There would thus be a double advantage gained ; for the presence of these reservoirs, if uncovered, would prevent the air from becoming so dry as it otherwise would, and might thus check the burning up of the soil and crops. A few acres, here and there, occupied by a reservoir, would not be without grent value, and might well be made more subservient to the orna- mentation of parks and pleasure-grounds than has hitherto been the case. A portion of the water that must otherwise be diverted would thus also sink into the earth, and increase the springs. It is evident that to be of any advantage these reservoirs should be numerous, and systematically placed. It is also evident that they can only be constructed in hilly or undulating districts. On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that standing-water in the autumn months is in many localities very unhealthy. There are no available artificial means at present known of modifying the distribution of rainfall and its total amount, except by altering the vegetation of a large extent of surface. The change of climate that has taken place already may, perhaps, be and Subterranean Water Storage. 85 almost entirely due to this cause and to drainage; and as clear- ing and draining must ever be the first operations of civilised men in a new country already covered witli forest, the change must begin at once, and go on uninterruptedly until a balance has been attained. We do not know whether this is yet the case in Western Europe. It may be considered certain that it is not the case in North America, and that the tendency therefore may still be to produce a more average climate in both cases. In the northern states of the Union, and in Canada, the climate is still excessive, and will probably always continue so. In our own country it probably never has been excessive in recent times, at any rate since the introduction of civilisation ; but it has been favourably modified, and may admit of improvement yet further, so far as it is improvement to equalise the temperature of summer and winter, and distribute the rainfall equally throughout the year. An extreme instance of such a climate may be found in some parts of New Zealand ; and by the removal of forests that country may some day resemble England even more than it does at present. Cosmical causes, or causes affecting the eartli as a planet, in its relation with the other planets of our solar system and the sun, may also have acted to some extent ; and if so, they may still act, and produce further changes quite independent of human agency ; but with these, or modifications of the surface arising from physical causes, we are not here concerned. We must, I think, assume that as drainage has only recently been carried out systematically over large areas of country ; as the modern style of cultivation and the removal of hedge-rows and trees wherever important farm-work is undertaken, is still imperfectly acted on ; and as high-farming is still limited, the progressive alteration of climate, whatever it has been, will not cease or be checked, but rather it will increase and become more manifest. We must look forward to the seasons running yet more into one another than they now do ; to the winters being more rarely extremely cold and the summers hot, and, perhaps, also to the rainfall diminishing by degrees, more or less per- ceptible. And this may be the case, although now and then old people may recognise and welcome a winter or a summer of the kind they remember to have been common when they were voung. It is not that each particular year will be more like the average, but that the seasons will, on the whole and generally, be more moderate. What is done is done ; but the effects, perhaps, are only beginning to manifest themselves ; and it behoves the agriculturist to prepare for the change, and to consider how, on the whole, he can best adapt himself and his culture to it. Crops that can best grow and ripen in our cool summers and doubtful autumns should take the place of those 86 Field Experiments of Crude German Potash-Salts that can endure sharp winter-cold, but need hot days in autumn. We have long given up the vine for profitable cultivation, and have ceased to expect grapes to ripen in an average summer ; but we retain some crops that are better adapted for drier climates, and hotter and more settled weather in August and September than England can make sure of. We must not in this, or in any matter, attempt to fight against Nature, though by a careful study of her operations we may modify and bend her course. It seems to me that this is the right lesson to be learnt, from the very important fact that the climate of England is probably undergoing a modification which may continue still further in the same direction. We could not now, even if it were desired, bring things back again to their former state, restore a former condition of vegetation, and cover the surface of the soil with the oaks and beeches of former times. We must adopt another and a very different system. Accepting the change, we must work to meet it ; and knowing the probable result of those plans that we find it convenient to adopt, we must prepare for a more average climate, and perhaps for a smaller rainfall, less water in the streams in dry summers, and generally a lower state of the springs. In some countries, where the supply of water is already insufficient, this might be difficult ; but with us there is no danger of permanent drought ; and we have only to make due use of that state of things which naturally belongs to or has been artificially produced in our country. V. — Field Experiinents of Criide German Potash-salts and Common Salt on Mangolds. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker. If the artificial supply of potash be attended with any bene- ficial results to vegetation, it is likely to produce a more marked effect on poor sandy soils, naturally deficient in potash than on good agricultural clays, in which this alcali may be presumed to occur in greater abundance. The discovery of vast mineral deposits of a variety of potash- salts in the salt-mines at Stassfurth, in Saxony, has placed within the reach of the farmer a cheap source of potash with which he may manure his fields, should experience prove such an application beneficial. There are at present several manu- factories in active operation at Stassfurth, producing chloride of potassium and sulphate of potash of various degrees of purity, the least expensive form being sold under the name of Crude German Potash-salts. These salts have been tried in Germany during the last three or four seasons, on a variety of crops, some- and Common Salt on Manrjolds. 87 times with apparently marked beneficial results, at others with- out producing- any decidedly favourable effect. These contra- dictor}' records of experience appeared to me to result probably from the great variation in the proportions of available potash Avhich we know to exist in soils of different characters. In order to put this supposition to a practical test, and, as I thought, to give the crude potash-salts the best chance of manifesting their fertilising powers, I induced my friend and former pupil, Mr. Kimber, of Tubney Warren, to undertake for me some experi- ments on a very light newly-reclaimed sandy soil. The crop experimented upon was long red mangolds. A sample of the crude potash-salts employed in the subjoined experiments analysed by me was found to have the following composition : — Composition of Crude Salts of Potash from Germany. Moisture 11-63 Orjianic matter -73 Oxide of irou "34: Sulphate of potash 24-03 Sulphate of magnesia 1-14 Chloride of magnesium 12-01 Chloride of sodium (common salt) 47-85 Sulphate of hme '78 Magnesia -52 Sand -97 100-00 It will be seen that beside chloride of magnesium these salts contain 24 per cent, of sulphate of potash, and nearly twice as much common salt. Having ascertained in the preceding year that common salt alone produced a very considerable increase in the mangold crop, grown on a light sandy soil very similar to that on which I intended to try potash-salts, I considered it very desirable to eliminate, if possible, the effects likely to be produced by the common salt in the crude German salts, of which it forms so large a proportion. Several experimental plots, therefore, were top-dressed with common salt, varying in quantity from 2 to 8 cwts. per acre ; and in order to get some insight into the natural variation in the agricultural capabilities of the experi- mental field, two plots, one at either end, and a third in the middle of the field, were left without any top-dressing. As very few fields have a properly uniform composition, or are in every part in precisely the same agricultural condition, the reservation of two, or rather three, such plots is essential for determining the limits of the variation in the natural productive 88 Field Experiments of Crude German Potash-Salts powers of the field without manure, in order to form a correct estimate of the value of the manures experimented on. The soil of the experimental field was a rather dark-coloured sand, about 1 foot in depth, and resting on a raw yellow sand. A portion of the soil was submitted to analysis, and the following results obtained : — Composition of Exjyeriinental Mangold Field at Talney Warren, Abingdon. Soil dried at 212° Fabr. Organic matter 5*88 Oxides of h'on and alumina 4'11 Carbonate of lime '62 Magnesia -22 Potasli and soda •14 Phosphoric acid '07 Sulphuric acid '04 Insoluble silicious matter (fine sand) and loss .. 88"92 100-00 This analysis shows that in this soil sand greatly preponderates, that lime is deficient, and but very little potash and soda exist. It appeared thus peculiarly well adapted for trials with potash- salts. The land on which the mangolds were grown was uncultivated until 1863, growing grasses of a rough, coarse kind, principally the hassock-grass {^Aira ccespitosa). The surface was pared and burned early in 1863, and the land drained. The greater part of the ashes were spread on the land, and oats sown in March, In 1864 another crop of oats was groAvn without manure. The land was then cultivated in the autumn and afterwards ploughed and subsoiled. It was then ridged up with farmyard dung and mangolds — long red, drilled on the 27th April last Avith 3 cwts. superphosphate per acre. The plants came up well ; and after they had been hoed and singled, common salt and salts of potash were applied separately in various quantities on the 1st July. On the 6th July there was a heavy fall of rain, and again on the 13th another soaking rain, Avhich I considered would Avash into the soil all the most soluble parts of the salts. The effect of the common salt was soon apparent. By the first week in August the eye could clearly detect different shades of colour in the leaves of the different plots, Avhich by the middle of the month became still more marked. The leaves of the mangolds dressed with salt had a decidedly lighter colour than the rest; those dressed with potash-salts were somewhat darker and less yellow in hue ; and where no top-dressing was and Common Salt on Manrjolds. 89 applied the leaves had a darker, more bluish-green colour, inclininG;' to purple. JVIr. Kimber writes to me : — " During three seasons I have observed that common salt applied to young growing mangold plants on this sandy soil has the effect of producing a greater development of leaf and a kinder growth of the bulb with less root. " When a soil is deficient in any one of its necessary consti- tuents, or when that which the growing plant requires in its cir- culation is not obtainable in sufficient quantities, a forked growth of the roots is generally the result. The difference in this respect of two heaps of mangolds placed side by side, one grown with salt, the other with none, is very marked. I have also observed that turnips grown here with salt have come up less rooty than the others without salt ; but the difference is not so great as in mangolds. " These remarks are not intended to apply generally and to all soils, they only relate to this particular soil and the last three seasons." Mr. Kimber made some notes on the 19th August, 1865, and as he was quite ignorant of the arrangements of the plots, his observations are of particular interest. Notes on Experimental Mangold Plots, made 10th August, 18G5. Plot 1. — iSTothing .. ., Leaves dark in colour, iDclining to a purple tint. Plot 2. — Salt, 6 cwts. .. The leaves four or five shades paler in colour than Plot 1, and having a more luxuriant appearance. Half as much again leaf and fav superior bulbs to Plot 1. Plot 3. — Potash, 3 cwts. .. Not cpiite as good as Plot 2. Leaves a shade darker. Plot 4. — Salt, 3 cwts. .. About as Plot 3. Leaves a shade paler. Plot 5. — Potash, 1 cwt. .. Not quite as good as Plot 4. Leaves a good shade darker. Plot G. — Nothing .. .. Not quite as good as Plot 5, and the leaves a shade darker. Plot 7. — Salt, 2 cwts. .. Much more leaf and two shades paler. Plot 8. — Potash, 2 cwts. . . About as Plot 7. Leaves a shade darker. Plot 9. — Salt, 4 cwts. .. More leaf than Plot 8, and a shade paler. Plot 10. — Potash, 4 cwts. .. About as Plot 9. A shade darker. Plot 11. — Salt, 8 cwts. , .. Very much larger in leaf and bulb than Plot 12, and three or four shades paler. About the same as Plot 10. . Plot 12.— Nothing .. .. The same as Plot 1. The roots were taken out of the ground, topped, cleaned, and weighed on the 10th November, 1865. The following Table shows the results that were obtained, the 90 Field Experiments of Crude German Potash-Salts, &,'€. arrangements of the different plots, and tlie quantity and kind of top-dressing employed : — Experiments with Crude Potash-Salts and Common Salt on Long Eed Mangolds at Tubney Warren, Abingdon. Plots of J- Acre. Top-dressing per Acre. Number of Roots per Plot. Produce per Plot. Produce per Acre. Increase over Plot 1. cwts. qrs. lbs. tons. No. 1 „ 2 „ 3 „ 4 -, 5 ., 6 ,. 7 „ 8 ., 9 „ 10 „ 11 „ 12 Nothing* Common salt, 2 cwts. .. Crude potash-salts, 3 cwts. Common salt, 3 cwts. . . Potash-salts, 1 cwt. Nothing* Common salt, 2 cwts. . . Potash-salts, 2 cwts. Common salt, 4 cwts. .. Potash-salts, 4 cwts. Common salt, 8 cwts. .. Nothing* 636 592 620 632 632 619 711 685 713 719 703 698 12 15 18 3 24 1 18 26 1 13 17 18 15 13 16 16 19 21 21 2 24 2 2 1 17 2 5 3 21 14 2 14 12 18 17 18 15 13 16 16 19 21 21 14 cwts. lbs. 2 76 19 32 8 24 4 72 7 36 14 32 10 40 8 4 10 100 18 84 11 68 tous. cwts. lbs, Nothing." 5 14 80 4 3 72 5 8 2 2 84 Nothing. 3 9 80 3 5 98 6 3 52 8 6 36 8 14 20 Nothing. * Average of 3 nothings . . tons. cwts. lbs. 13 4 64 The preceding experiments suggest the following remarks : — 1. The weights of the produce on the three plots not top- dressed with either common salt or potash-salts show variations amounting to 2 tons 9 cwts. per acre. Differences in the weight of the produce on other plots amounting to 2^ tons per acre, therefore have to be ascribed rather to the variable agricultural condition of the different plots of the experimental field than to the top-dressings used. 2. The results obtained on Plots 2 and 7 evidently show that such natural variations in the productive powers of the soil really existed in different parts of the same field. Plots 2 and 7 were both top-dressed at the rate of 2 cwts. of common salt per acre, whilst Plot 2 produced an increase of 5 tons 14 cwts. 80 lbs. over the average yield of the undressed plots. Plot 7 gave only an increase of 3 tons 9 cwts. 80 lbs., or 2 tons 5 cwts. less. Tlae limit of variations in the weight of the produce of Plots 2 and 7 it will be seen agrees closely with the difference in the weight of mangolds on the undressed Plots 1 and 12. 3. Making due allowance for the natural variation in the productive powers of different parts of the same field, common salt, it will be noticed in every instance, gave as good a result as an equal weight of the more expensive crude potash-salts. 4. It will further be seen that the larger doses of salt pro- duced a greater increase than the smaller. Thus 3 cwts. of salt Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, Sfc. 91 per acre gave an increase of 5 tons 8 lbs. of clean mangolds, 4 cwts. an increase of G tons 3 cwts. 52 lbs., and 8 cwts. of common salt an inci-ease of 8 tons 14 cwts. 20 lbs. per acre. 5. As the crude potash-salts used in the preceding experi- ments contained twice as much common salt as sulphate of potash, and common salt gave as much increase as an equal weight of crude potash-salts, it is more than doubtful whether the potash in the latter had any share in increasing the crop on the plots dressed with crude potash-salts. (). The preceding experiments, it must be confessed, are rather calculated to demonstrate the utility of common salt as a top-dressing for mangolds, on light, sandy soils, than that of potash. It would, however, be rash to decide on the strength of a single series of experiments that the artificial supply of potash, unfavourable as it has proved to be in the case before us, is useless under all circumstances. I therefore wish to suspend my judgment on the practical utility of this and other cheap forms of supplying potash to the land until I shall be in posses- sion of more extensive and reliable practical evidence than at present. Lahoratory, 11, Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, E.G., February, 1867. VI. — Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in the Metropolis. By Kobert Herbert. The heavy losses occasioned by the Cattle-plague in 1866 produced a considerable falling-off in the supplies of English and Scotch beasts to the great Metropolitan Market during the last six months of that year. The total number brought forward, including the arrivals from abroad, amounted to only 148,320 head, against 181,400 in the corresponding period in 1865, being a deficiency of 33,080 head. But, since nearly two-thirds of the English beasts and nine-tenths of the supplies from Scotland came to hand in far better condition than in the previous season, the falling-ofF in the quantity of meat was trifling. Indeed, we believe that London was far better supplied with animal food than at any time since 1864. This may appear somewhat strange, considering that about 250,000 bullocks were carried off by disease in 1866, and that the importation of live stock from certain districts in Holland has been prohibited. But it may be observed, that the slaughtering of stock in various parts of England and Scotland, for consumption in the metropolis, has 92 Statistics oj' Live Stock and Dead Meat been greatly on the increase ; and that in the six months, about 100,000 tons of meat came to hand from various Continental ports. The dead-markets have, therefore, been fully supplied, and the upward movement in the value of live stock has been checked. Nevertheless, meat, with the exception of pork, is a dear commodity, and likely to continue so for several months. The average value of inferior beasts was 3s. &d. per 8 lbs., against 3s. 2d. in the same time in 1865. Middling stock sold at an average of 4s. 8fZ., or 2d. higher than in the previous years; but the value of prime meat — 5s. — was unaltered. The improved weight and quality of the beasts brought forward account for the slight rise in the price of inferior animals. The moderate im- portations of foreign-cured provisions have failed to have much influence upon the value of live stock in this country. Supplies of sheep have been unusually small — viz., 708,620 head, including the animals from abroad, against 890,160 head in the corresponding period in 1865, and 769,814 in 1864. Notwithstanding that most breeds appeared in good condition and of full average weight, the best Downs and half-breds were in good request. Long-woolled sheep were steady in value. At one period the best Downs Avere worth as much as 6s. ^^d. per 8 lbs. Calves came slowly to hand, the total number not exceeding 12,291 head ; prices have consequently been high both for English and foreign, the latter of which have formed the bulk of the supplies. The total numbers of stock exhibited in the six months were : — Head. Beasts 148,320 Sheep 708,620 Calves 12,2<)1 Pigs 17,480 In the six previous seasons, these were : — Total Supplies of Stock exldhited. Beasts. Cows. Sheep and Lambs. Calves. Pigs. I860 .. .. 145,420 3015 762,740 15,766 15,470 1861 .. .. 149,750 3187 774,260 12,441 20,116 1862 .. .. 159,450 3148 759,671 12,579 18,220 18G3 .. .. 168,232 3127 761,070 14,822 17,550 1864 ., .. 177,944 3221 769,814 17,967 19,306 1SG5 .. .. 181,400 2177 890,160 21,532 16,151 The supplies of pigs sent to this market fell off in 1866, although the number in England rapidly increased. The enor- mous quantities of pork disposed of in Newgate and Leadenhall for Consumj)tion in the Metropolis. 93 accounts for this as also for the fall in prices, which gave Avay quite 6fZ. per 8 lbs. The highest quotation did not exceed 4s. ^d. per 8 lbs. In the last six months of the following years, the supplies of English, Scotch, and Irish beasts were as under : — District Bullock Arrivals. Northern Districts. Eastern Districts. Other parts of England. Scotland. Ireland. 1860 .. .. 66,140 9500 20,500 1151 7,852 1861 .. .. 71,450 2500 9,700 4586 14,340 1862 .. .. 74,570 5050 19,C20 3307 14,820 1863 .. .. 66,510 3850 21,250 3213 11,280 1864 .. .. 60,350 8400 19,400 3625 7,079 1865 .. .. 52,270 1600 20,070 4512 5,011 1S66 .. .. 35,900 2700 16,340 1844 4,170 We here see the effects of the ravages committed by disease. The Northern districts furnished 16,370 head of beasts less than in 1865, The slight increase in the arrivals from Norfolk, Suffolk, &c., was chiefly composed of half- fat stock. The total imports of foreign stock into London only were con- fined to 378,180 head. In the corresponding period in 1865, that supply was 557,875 ; and in 1864, 362,709 head. This falling- off arose from the Orders in Council prohibiting the importations of stock from Holland. Those Orders have been somewhat relaxed ; still, there are certain districts in Holland proclaimed as infected with disease. Private letters have informed us that heavy losses were sustained by the Dutch graziers in 1866, and that, even now, disease is pretty general. The return on the following page shows the imports of foreign stock into London during the last six months of 1866. The supply from France was of full average condition. The Danish bullocks were remarkably healthy, whilst the arrivals from Spain and Portugal were composed of really good animals. The enormous demand for Spanish stock in France has prevented the arrival here of increased numbers. Imports at Corresponding Periods. Beasts. Sheep and Lambs. Calves. Pigs. 1865 .. .. 88,775 399,220 19,535 50,445 1864 .. .. 76,922 238,121 16,793 30,803 1863 .. .. 61,435 241,209 17,497 18,936 1862 .. ,. 57,356 250,140 19,610 17,279 1861 .. .. 59,049 266,249 19,715 25,919 1860 .. ., 59,817 243,804 19,594 21,510 94 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat Imports of Foreign Stock into London during the last Six Months of 1866. From Beasts. Sheep. Lambs. Calves. Pigs. Aarhuus . . 9 11 Amsterdam 7 206 301 29 Antwerp , , 1,106 73,418 3,988 4,092 2,815 Boulogne . . 5,763 4,810 69 1,138 91 Bremen 5,816 2,622 7,916 170 13 Cadiz 1,746 Caen 2,758 89 ., 627 187 Calais , , 472 .. 823 179 Copenhagen 137 . , Deauville .. 2,239 266 88 17 Dieppe 2,956 2,137 2,037 46 Dordt 213 .. , , Dreux 529 22 .. Dunkirk . . 105 209 *101 Gerstemunde . . 946 1,958 5 Gothenburg 1,990 1,706 458 120 Hamburg .. 10,534 57,282 191 3,382 Harlingen .. 10,179 45,298 1,137 2,362 4,605 Havre 313 190 95 Honfleur . . 2,057 491 2 81 12 Kbnigsberg 50 ,. .. New Dieppe .. 29 2,723 ,. .. Oporto 1,289 .. .. Ostend .. ,. 706 2',317 31 2,165 80 Eotterdam ,. ., 7,705 Stettin .. .. 65 , , ^, Stockholm . . 77 119 , , St. Petersburg .. 897 .. .. Tonning . . 32,004 35,519 5,839 4 Tromville.. 8,367 210 78 Vigo 139 •• Total .. 92,839 232,262 19,283 14,544 19,252 Inferior beasts produced rather more money than In 1865, owing to their improved condition. Middling stock was like- wise dearer ; but prime animals' prices were about stationary. All breeds of sheep suffered a decline. Average Prices of Beef and Mutton. Beef.— Per 8 lbs. to sink the Offal. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. Inferior Middling Prime s. d. 3 2 4 4 10 s. d. 3 4 4 2 5 s. d. 3 6 4 6 5 6 s. d. 3 2 4 6 5 4 s. d. 3 6 4 8 5 4 for Consumption in the Metropolis. MuTTOx.— Per 8 lbs. to sink the Offal. 95 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. Inferior Middling .. .. Prime s. d. 3 8 4 8 5 6 s. d. 4 5 5 10 s. d. 4 2 5 2 5 10 s. d. 4 6 5 6 G 8 s. d. 4 5 2 6 2 The supplies of rough fat having been good, prices have been moderately low. The latest quotation was 2s. S^fZ. per 8 lbs. Newgate and Leadenhall were heavily supplied with meat, but prices fluctuated considerably. The highest quotation for beef was 5s. 4(/., the lowest '6s. 2cl. per 81bs. ; mutton ranged from 3s. 2d. to 55. 4c?. ; veal, 4^. 4:d. to 5^. 8d. ; and pork, Ss. to 4^. Sd. per 8 lbs. by the carcase. The wool trade was in a depressed state, owing to the un- usually heavy importations from our colonies. The public sales passed off heavily, at Id. to 2d. per lb., and very few transactions took place on account of foreign houses. Apparently, Ave shall have an enormous import from our colonies this year, as we learn that the clip has turned out very large. The total quan- tities of wools, in bales, received from all sources in the last five years were : — Bales. 1862 567,668 1863 596,-326 1864 670,907 1865 685,634 1866 790,458 The value of English wool, at the close of 1865 and 1866, was as follows : — 1865. 1866. Fleeces : — s. d. s. d. s. d. s, d. Southdown hoggetts .... 1 9i to 1 10 1 6i to 1 7 Half-bred hogcretts 1 11^ to 2 0^ 1 Ih to 1 8i Kent fleeces 1 Hi to 2 Oi 17 to 1 8 Southdown ewes and wethers 1 82 to 1 9 1 4^ to 1 5? Leicester ditto 1 lOi to 2 1 6 to 1 7 Sorts : — Clothing and picklock .. ..110 to 1 11 1 7^ to 1 9 Prime and picklock 1 8 to 1 8^ 1 6 to 1 7 Choice 1 7 to 1 7i 1 5i to 1 6 Super 1 6 to 1 6i 1 4i to 1 5 Combing : — Wether matching 1 Hi to 2 18 to 1 8i Picklock 18 to 1 9i 1 5i to 1 6i Common 15 to 1 6 1 3^ to 1 4 Hop matching 2 to 2 Oi 1 lOi to 1 Hi Picklock matching 18 to 1 9i 17 to 1 7i Super ditto " 1 5 to 1 7 1 4i to 1 5 96 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, S^-c. The fall in 1866 was, no doubt, chiefly occasioned by the enormous influx of colonial wools, and the limited re-exports, because our shipments of woollen goods last year were on a most extensive scale, especially to the United States, the dealers in which country are now buying; large parcels of wool at the Cape of Good Hope, for direct shipment to New York. 4, Argyle Square, St. Pancras. EEPonTS. ( 97 ) REPORTS OF THE CO^ilMITTEES APPOINTED TO INVESTIGATE THE PEESENT STATE OF STEAM CULTIVATION. VII. — The Report of the Inspection Committee {No. 1) deputed by the Royal Agricultural Society of England to enquire into the Results of Steam Cultivation in the Counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Hertfordshire, Essex, Surrey, Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire. The following instructions were Issued by the Society, for the guidance of the three Inspection Committees. Each Committee will be furnished with : — 1. A list of the farms in the district assigned to it on which steam culti- vation has been adopted. 2. The replies received from the owners of steam apparatus to the schedule of questions addressed to them by the Society. 3. A list of the farms selected for inspection. Although the Inspection Com- mittees are not to consider themselves precluded from inspecting a farm which is not on their list, on being satisfied that there are sufficient reasons for doing so, it must be their object to limit themselves as nearly as possible to the number of days allotted to the districts assigned to them. In order the better to accomplish this they will be at liberty to omit inspecting any of the selected farms which, from information received, they may consider not to possess any especial interest, more particularly if distant from their main route. In either case they will be expected to report to Hanover Square their reasons for deviating from the prescribed list. In the exercise of this power the Inspection Committee are requested to keep prominently in mind that one of the main objects of the enquiry is to obtain a report of the results of the adoption of different systems of cultivation, and of different kinds of •steam apparatus, and tlieir power of adaptation to large or small farms, with any other points which they may consider deserving of notice. 4. The enquiry should be specially directed to the following particulars : — i. The depth and nature of the tillage, and its cost per acre, including the various items of expenditure for each kind of work. ii. The age of the machine and the amount paid annually for repairs : the nature of breakages and^their causes. iii. How far, by the adoption of steam cultivation, tlie drainage of strong lands has been assisted, and the cropping of the farm been VOL. III. — S. S. H 98 Ecport on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. cbangcd — more especially to ■what extent autumu cultivation Las increased the growth of green crops, and the productiveness of the soil. iv. The number of working days on which the engine power has been used for the purpjose of steam cultivation on or off the farm. V. The number of days on which it has been used for other purposes on or off the farm, the nature of the work done, daily cost and amount charged when let on hire, vi. The number of days lost by breakage and other causes. vii. In the case of steam-ploughs, &c., let out for hire, what loss of wages has occurred from the non-employment of the men, this being an item of expense against the apparatus, viii. The most economical mode of supplying water for steam culti- vation. ix. The best method of arranging and forming roads and headlands for steam cultivation. Co3i3iiTTEE Xo. 1 Consisted of: — 1. Mr. Howard Reed. 2. Mr. John Hemsley, of Slielton, Newark, Notts. 3. Mr. John Hickm, of Dunchurch, Rugby, Warwickshire. To the first-named gentleman was entrusted the duty of drawing up their Report. To THE President and Council of the R.A.S.E. Your Committee No. 1 completed their duties in 22 days, having in that period visited 36 farms. With one exception they were welcomed with the greatest cordiality, and every facility was given them for the prosecution of their enquiries. They have considered it desirable generally to furnish a short report of each visit ; to these reports they have appended a iew general conclusions drawn from what they have seen. The Reports will not follow the order in which the visits were made, but will be more conveniently distributed into three classes, one for Heavy-land farms, a second for Medium soils, and a third for Light-land farms. This arrangement, your Committee are aware, will break up the continuity of the narra- tive, but in as far as it will best subserve the practical objects of the cncjuiry they consider it preferable. Your Committee beg leave to prefix to the Reports a few remarks relative to the circumstances under which they made their inves- tigations, and the special difficulties which met them in the prosecution of their duties. Their labours commenced on the 3rd and terminated on the 27lh of September. Throughout Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 99 this period there was one clay only in which rain did not fall. It will be within your remembrance that the latter part of July and the whole of August had been similarly wet, and that the harvest everywhere was thrown backwards three or four weeks. The consequence was that nearly all those who received our visits were found to be either in the middle or towards the close of harvest, with nothing* to show in the shape of Autumn Cultivation either done or doing. Notwith- standinsr these discouraijements, it was considered advisable to go on. The rain was not allowed to interfere in the slightest degree with the plan laid down, and though in many cases it partially prevented the proper inspection of the farm, and in many more did totally prevent our seeing the steam tackle at work, it could not, of course, interfere with such collection of statistics and opinions, and such personal intercourse with the gentlemen visited as could be carried on under cover. For the purposes of this enquiry the season must be considered to have been singularly disadvantageous. Further disappointment was experienced by the general dearth of anything like accurate data relative to the amount of work done and the cost of doing it. A few instances were met with in which considerable attention had been given during the first or second year of steam tillage to drawing out a debtor and creditor statement ; but scarcely anywhere had this method been persevered in. Its discontinuance, however, was almost always attributed to the fact that purchasers having satisfied themselves of its economical value in the first or second year, had discontinued a practice which entailed a srreat deal of work without anv accom- panying advantage. To some readers it may appear to be a matter of small conse- quence that the steam tackle should be seen at work ; but in almost every case where it was so seen, it was discovered that the owners varied either the apparatus or the use of it, to suit their special circumstances. These special changes, to overcome special difficulties, are either overlooked in mere conversation or imperfectly understood if described ; being often confined to the mode of working, nothing but the observing eye detects them, and duly appreciates their worth. \ our Committee there- fore very much regret the loss of the opportunity, wherever it did not occur. It must be further remarked that the comparison instituted in this enquiry is only between Steam-cultivated farms. Of the adjacent farms nothing was seen beyond the glimpses of them afforded from the railway or the high road. A more extensive survey would perhaps have shown that neighbouring farmers H 2 100 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Eeed. were content to abide by the employment of horse power, because they could point to fields so cultivated which did not show to a disadvantage beside lands tilled by steam power. The superiority in either case depends, not upon the power itself, but upon the man who wields it, Mr. Kersey Cooper said during the visit of the Committee to him, " I have been over many steam-cultivated farms without perceiving any ad- vantage, and I have been over others where 1 have seen as many advantages as I can show myself. In a great many instances steam cultivation is not a profitable investment, not from any defect of power or mechanical construction or outlay, but because few take the advantage they should and might do from it ; here, as elsewhere, success is only obtained when one combines business habits with a knowledge of scientific principles." This remark entirely concurs with our experience, which goes to prove that it is the man, and not the apparatus, to which the results are mainly due. Much difference of opinion was encountered as to the cha- racter of the soil under consideration. Almost invariably it was represented as unusually heavy. For this reason one question asked was. How many horses do you use in ploughing one acre to a depth of G inches ? These answers corrected, where prac- ticable, by personal observations, enabled us to classify the farms according to the texture of the soil. The statements contained in each Report are simply the condensed results obtained from the questions put. Where the Committee venture to express their own opinions or to make a suggestion, their responsibility for the same has generally been made sufficiently clear. They have been careful to ascertain the price of manual labour, of horse power, and of coal, &c., in each district, as well as the various estimates of wear and tear, main- tenance, (S:c., and have avoided the intrusion of what are termed " received data," It has not been considered necessary in every case to carry out a calculation exhibiting the price per acre ; but such data have been furnished as will enable any reader to do this for himself. Section A. Heavy-Land Fakms. No, 1, Mr, W, T. Allen, Little Stambridge Hall, Rochford, Essex, September 4, This gentleman occupies 3000 acres of land, 500 acres being grass. That part of the land which is moderately stiff is around the house at Stambridge. The 1700 acres of heavy land is part of Wallasea Island, which contains in all 3000 acres. The soil of this island is a stiff blue clay. Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 101 warped bj the sea to a depth of from 7 to 10 inches. The section is as follows : — The steam-plough is useful Top soil 7 to 10 inches. Blue clay 10 to 15 feet. Beach 20 feet. 400 feet London Clay, through which artesian ■wells are sunk for good water. on the home farin ; it is indis- pensable on Wallasea, where horses cannot plough the re- quired depth. The land lies all or nearly so in stetches, 7 or 8 feet wide, watei'-furrowed. Some hesitating attempts have been made to lay it flat, and these having generally failed, a bar is put against progress in this direction. The fact is that the initial work of drainage remains to be done, as is often the case in Essex, owing to a conviction either that there is no fall, or that the clay will not permit of the descent of rain-water. The farm lies well for steam ; the fields are large^ and some have been made removal of fences. At home a good supply of water is obtained from ponds; in Wallasea from five artesian wells, which produce water of excellent quality. Great changes have been effected in the system of culture ; bare fallows every sixth year have been abandoned. Italian rye-grass or tares now take their place. These are mown for cattle soiled in the yards. Sheep are kept — not a breeding flock, but hoggets pur- chased in spring and sold before winter in store condition. Mr. Allen spoke very confidently of the increased bulk of his crops since the application of steam ; no special comparative instances were adduced ; but this opinion would, in Mr. Allen's case, be founded on accurate observation. He experiences just those difficulties which any one would expect to meet with who attempted to cultivate by steam a heavy-land farm not previously drained. In a wet time, of course, the hindrances due to rain are increased. The Apparatus was bought of Messrs. J. Fowler and Co. in 1862. It consisted of an einjine of 14-horse power, a A-fiirroto plouf/h, a cultivator, 800 yards of rope, anchor, and porters ; price 1000/. There is upon the farm another steam-engine of 8-horse power. Both are employed for thrashing, grinding, and other work. Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — The main expenses are 102 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Heed, on the engine, particularly tlie travelling' parts ; tlie drums have proved expensive. Since 1862, 750 yards of new rope have been bought, and the present rope, now in its fourth season, is about one-third worn. The total expenses for repairs for the year 1865 were 115?.; the average expenses since 1862, 100/. per annum. All is kept in good repair by a first-class engineer, who superin- tends the two engines and all the machinery. Work done. — During a day of ten hours, with plough or culti- vator, including removals, about 8 acres a day, 8 to 12 inches deep. Since hay-crop was harvested, to give the latest particulars, 1st July, 1866, 323 acres have been ploughed or cultivated. It is observable that but for steam not 20 acres would have been done. This land had been under rye, grass, &c. ; it is all well cleaned, and in fine tilth. ' Cost of Work. Manual and Horse-labour per day : — £. s. d. Engineer 30 Engine-driver .. .. .. .. .. .. 30 Ploughman .. .. 03 6 Anchormen 03 Water-cart, man and horse 5 3 boys 3 ■ •( \ 1 G 2(1. an acre per day is offered to the men as au inducement to work, say 14 The coals cost per day 10 4 Oil 8 Eemovals 7 11 7 Mr. Allen directed us to his computations of the expenses between June 13th, 1862, and 10th October, 1862. They were as follow : — £. s. c7. Labour of 3 men and 3 boys, 103 davs .. .. 86 18 2 53Hons of coal at 20s. per ton .'. .. .. 53 10 17 gallons of oil 3 80 1 horse 103 days carting water and coal .. .. 25 5 6 6 pairs of horses shifting from field to Held .. 3 10 dozen points 5 11 Skifes and porters 5 10 183 2 8 This account includes some repairs, but probably not the engineer. Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 103 In tliis time (103 days) were scarified and ploughed 5G2 acres, stoppages and removal included, — that is, about 5^ acres per day; much less than the performance in 18GG, after years of experience, and after all the land has been once deep worked. This comes to 6.9. Qd. an acre, to which may be added 6.v. od. an acre for wear and tear, maintenance, and interest on the whole prime cost of the tackle. The horses have not been reduced ; but much more work is done and more crops are taken. The tackle has worked abroad ; the charges have been 155. for culti- vating, and 20s. for ploughing. We saw it in operation. The engine looked somewhat worn. The plough, cultivator, and rope were in a good state, and the land lay in fine style. No. 2. Mr. C. C. Harvey, Foulness Island, South Essex, September 4. To gain this farm we passed through Paglesham from Stambridge, and took the ferry-boat down the Roach and Crouch rivers, over the ovster-beds, some three miles, to Mr. Harvey's landing-place. The island contains 5000 acres. On this space 600 people live in very primitive fashion. It seems scarcely credible that the post should take a week now to reach any point in England and Wales from London ; yet the letter which we forwarded to announce our visit only arrived the day before we made our appearance, and had certainly been six days on the road. The island has another approach from Southend by the Maplin sands, which are about to be flooded with the sewage of London. The culvert that is to bring it will cross the Roach near this farm, and will run across the island. The 2 feet of staple consists of a series of deposits, marine and fresh water, lying upon the London clay, which is found at a depth of about 40 feet, the intervening strata being sand, gravel, and blue clay. As with \Vallasea (No. 1), the London clay is pierced for good water in numerous places by Artesian wells, from 300 to 400 feet deep. INIr. Harvey's farm is so supplied. Two-thirds of the island belongs to Mr. Finch, a Rutlandshire squire. No permission is needed for grubbing hedgerows or felling timber, for the fields, which are large, are divided by ditches, and trees, if ever they did exist, now form a carboniferous deposit far below the chalk which underlies the London clay. Our acquaintance with the farm was made during our efforts to gain the house from the rivei'-bank through a pelting rain. The scene was dreary in the extreme ; it was one in which no heart, save that of a duck or a heron, could take pleasure. Our observa- tion tended to confirm what Mr. Harvey told us of the strength of the soil, namely, that three horses had quite enough to do in turning a furrow-slice 7 to S inches deep. Mr. Harvey does not agree with his neighbour, Mr. Allen, in the unprofitableness of 104 Re2)ort on Steam Cultivation. [Eeed. drainage-works; but an obstacle presents itself to deep drainage in the defective outfall which is regulated by the cill of the sluice in the river-bank, which is only 5 feet down. Drainage, how- ever, in Mr. Harvey's opinion, does not do away with the neces- sity for stitches and water-furrows. The course of ciopping in the neighbourhood is as follows : — clean fallow, mustard, wheat,, clover, wheat, beans, wheat. By means of steam Mr. Harvey now produces roots, and gets a tare-crop between the wheat- stubble and turnip-crop. The Apparatus, manufactured by Messrs. Fowler, was bought in the autumn of 1862. It consists of an engine of 14-horse power, double cylinder, traction, a 4-furrow plough, fitted as a cultivator, 800 yards of rope, an anchor, porters, «Scc. ; price 900^. Repairs, Reneivah, Wear and Tear. — During the first year the repairs are said to have been " frightful :" every conceivable acci- dent occurred ; never a day passed without a smash, or a breakage, or without serious delay. But Mr. Harvey stuck to the machine through all adverse circumstances, trained himself and his men to use it, and has outlived the jeers of those who are always ready to depreciate the efforts of men of progress. Breaks and delays are now never known. No account of repairs has been kept. We were presented with a rough estimate — 100/. in two years. The great loss has been with the travelling parts of the engine, especially the clip-drum. Rope in a soil which has no pebbles does not wear much. Of new rope only 250 yards have been, required. Work done, its Cost, and 3Iode of doing it. — During a day of ten hours about 8 or 9 acres are ploughed, not including stoppages or removals. The mode of preparing for the green and root crops is as follows : — wheat-stubble, broken up and crossed by steam,, horse-ploughed, sown with tares, tares fed off with sheep, tare- stubble scarified and ploughed 15 inches deep by steam. This produces a far better seed-bed for seeded mustard than can be gained by those who depend simply on horse-power, and allows of the extra crop. Work can be usually prosecuted from Maj^ till October. The apparatus was not bought for his own farm merely, but to work on neighbouring farms, like the thrashing-machines, of which he owns several. He lias been doing a little contract- ploughing, at 12^. an acre, 9 to 10 inches deep ; but is dis- appointed in the demand, even at this low rate. From what has been said it may fairly be supposed that enterprise is a rather rare quality on Foulness Island. Mr. Harvey expressed a desire for the 2-engine system, so that he might dispense v/ith the anchors, gain a direct pull on the implement, and move from Keed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 105 place to place with facility. Tlie followinc: is a copy of a paper, prepared by Mr. Harvey, to show what has been done since July, 1865: — August, 1865. — Steamed in 17 dnys 113 acres, or 7 acres ptr day, 10 to 12 inclies deep : 3 men, 5s. per day each ; 2 boys, 2s. per day ; Is. 10a'. extra divided amongst the company. Total manual-labour £2G 10 2 September and October, 1865. — Steamed 162 acres in 40 days, or 4 acres per day, same average depth as above : 1 man, 3s. C)(l. a day ; 2 men, 2.''. ; 2 boys, Is. GcZ. each; lOd. per acre extra distributed amongst the company. Total manual-labour £27 15 June, &c., 1866. — Steamed 151 acres in 36 days, or A\ acres per day : 1 man, 3s. 6'/. per day ; 2 men, 2s. ; 3 boys. Is. 2d. per day ; lid. per acre distri- buted amongst the company. Total manual-labour £26 14 5 Jul}^ 1866. — Steamed 100 acres in 25 days, or 4 acres per day : 1 man, 3s. 6'/.; 2 men, 2s.; 3 boys, l.s. 2.d. per day ; extra, lid. per acre. Total manual-labour £18 6 3 Coal, 11. per ton home ; consumption, 15 cwts. per day of 10 hours. The farm, which consists of 300 acres, though nearly all arable, is not of sufficient extent to employ so large an ap- paratus. Mr. Harvey laid particular stress on the value of copper fire- boxes and brass-tubes, such as those sent out with some of Ran- some's engines, particularly when the water is apt to leave a large deposit. He spoke of engines so fitted, which having been in con- stant work since 1857, without repairs in tube or fire-box, are now as good as they were the day they came from the Orwell Works. The difference in price between copper and iron in an engine of 7-horse power is 50/. When done with, the metal is still valuable. No. 3. The Right Hon. the Earl of Leicester, Holkham, Norfolk, September 11. In February, 1861, Lord Leicester purchased a set of tackle for a farm of 500 acres of land just reclaimed from the sea, which so late as 1857 was under water. The soil, like all alluvia, is without stones. About two-fifths of the area is a heavy blue clay thinning out to a sand on one side of the farm. The subsoil is clay. The rest is being clayed. Two horses plough 3 roods a day 6 to 7 inches deep. A great deal of preliminary work had to be done before the land was fit to receive horses. Creeks had to be filled up, hollows levelled, ditches cut dividing the area into square plots, roads constructed, and drains made. When this was done steam was applied. The fields are of such dimensions, 280 yards square,. 106 Report on Steam Caltivation. [Reed. that 600 yards of tlie rope exactly suits. They are uniformly cultivated from tlie roads. The under drainage is done at a depth of from 2 to 4 feet, 12 yards apart in clay, 24 in sand. Water is plentifully obtained on the land side of the old sea- bank, and is of good quality. Of this 500 acres, 260 acres only had been cultivated by steam up to December, 1862, when the bank broke, and the sea regained possession. Until March, 1864, nothing could be done. When the sea was again excluded, the land was long too wet to work. ^Since that date steam has been used to great advantage. The Apparatus was bought of Messrs. Fowler in 1861. It consists of an engine, bearing Kitson and Hewetson's name, of 12-horse power, double cylinder, traction, 600 yai'ds of rope, 1 4-furrowed plough, 1 cultivator, and a subsoiler. Price 885/. Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — We saAv the tackle at work. The 4-furrowed plough was carrying o furrows 9|^ inches deep, with 65 lbs. steam pressure. All was in a good state and carefully kept ; the slack rope Avell supported. The engine is cleaned out once in 6 weeks ; width of front travelling-wheels of engine 1 foot 4 inches ; of back wheels, 1 foot 10 inches. The bush of the clip-drum, being of cast-iron, has been twice renewed ; beyond this, there has been no considerable wear of the tackle. In this, as in some other engines which we in- spected, Ave considered that there was too small a space for dry steam. The engine is engaged about 170 days a year: 20 for thrashing, chaff-cutting, &c., and 150 for tillage on this and the Park Farm. Two years ago the whole apparatus was overhauled, refitted with all the recent improvements. Excluding these additions, not more than 100/. have been expended, apart from the rope, to which 600 yards Avere added since 1865. Work done, and 3Iode of doing it. — The rate during a day of 10 hours, including removals (which average 2 hours each, with 2 horses), is — Siibsoiling, 16 inches deep 2^] acres, Ploii!ilung, 9 ,, 5 „ Cultivating, 6-7 „ 10 „ There were 123 acres subsoiled before the Christmas of 1865 and 15 ploughed; during the spring and summer of 1866, 114 acres were subsoiled and 176 cultivated. Between the harvest of 1865 and that of 1866, 105 days' work were accomplished. In this period, however, there were 210 over hours paid for beyond the 10 constituting the ordinary day's labour. The apparatus is not much used in the Park Farm on account of IiEED.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 107 the clumps of trees standing in tlie midst of the fields. Here and there it has, however, been employed, and generally with the best results to drained land. One field was fetched up to a great depth with the digging breasts, so that the red gravelly subsoil was admixed with the staple, and so increased its fer- tility, that the barley, wheat, and clover crops have never since forgotten it. Cost of Worli. Manual and Horse-labonr per dn y : — £. s. (7. Engine-driver 2G Ploughman 02 3 porter- bo j^s 03 1 anchor-boy 1 G AVater-cart, boy and horse 4 6 13 6 Average labour payment extra 4 2 Coal .. ^ 5 10 Oil 10 14 6 N.B. — Men paid by the day Avith the following extra allowance per acre divided between the driver and ploughman equally : — for subsoiling, Is, Sd. ; ploughing, lOd. ; scarifying, M. Coal — " Gawber Hall," a hard coal, 17s. a ton, home ; consumption, 7 cwts. per day of 10 hours = 5s. lOd. The smith's work is done on the estate. We were received with great kindness by Mr. Shellabear, his Lordship's steward. No. 4. Mr. S. Linton, Long Stanton, Cambridgeshire, September 12. — Mr. Linton has the advantage of farming his own land. The farm, which consists of 500 acres, is generally heavy. The arable land, about 400 acres, is ploughed by 3 horses 5 to 6 inches deep with some difficulty. There are about 100 acres of a gravelly clay loam which will grow turnips. The farm has been drained from 30 to 32 inches deep, li rods apart. The fields, small in area, were thrown into high back lands when the farm Avas bought ; they have since been enlarged and the lands thrown down ; but owing to some difficulty in getting off the water, there is a disposition to return to ridge and furrow. The outfall it seems will not allow of deeper drains, but we were led to think that a little stroke of engineering would relieve the land of that which defeats the owner's present inten- tions. The fields are now from 12 to 90 acres in extent. The supply of water is plentiful. That which is drawn from the wells that have been sunk is not so good as that which is obtained from ponds. The number of horses has been reduced from 15 to 12, which is to 2 horses to each 66 acres. The situation 108 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Eeed, of the farm is such as to require more than usual horse-power. Ten carts are kept going in harvest, and the extra horses are wanted for the corn-mowing machine. Fallows, which were the rule, have been abandoned. The course of husbandry has been beans, wheat, varied with clover. Mr. Linton intends to grow wheat every other year on the same land. The beans and wheat system will have to fight with weeds, which may be kept down by steam power, provided the present signs of a water-logged farm are got rid of; but they certainly could not be by the appli- cation of horse-power vinder any circumstances, or by steam power unless the land is laid dry. JNIr, Linton could say little about increased crops. We were induced to think that deeper culture, rendered possible by deeper drainage, would allow of the production of roots to much larger extent, and possibly — inasmuch as this has been accomplished on land as heavy — the feeding of sheep. The Apparatus, Fowler's patent, was made in 1862 by Burrell. It consists of an engine of 14-horse power, double cylinder, an anchor, cultivator, rope-porters, 800 yards of rope ; price 875/. The engine does all the thrashing, chaff-cutting, and grinding of the farm. Repairs, Renewals, Hear and Tear. — No regular account kept. The engine is said to have required nothing except the draw- ing of the tubes. The greatest wear is reported to have been on the implements. The first rope was replaced without charge by a second, which has worn well and is in a very good state. Work done. — During a day of 10 hours, including removals, 8 to 9 acres with cultivator. In the autumn of 1865, 237 acres Avere broken up once, 8 to 9 inches deep. 50 acres have been done during the spring of 1866. Cost of Worli. Manual and Horse-laLour : — £. s. d. Engine-driver 030 Ploughman 030 3 anchor and porter-boys 4 6 1 boy and horse 05 15 G Coal 9 3 Oil 2 1 G 9 N.B. — Men paid only by the day ; paid for overtime in same proportion. Coal — "Hard," 15s. (jd. per ton home; consumption, l- cwts. per day. Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 109 Mr. Linton was Fig. P. We saw tlie apparatus, but not at work, kind enough to point out several ingenious improvements of his own. Amongst others may be noticed the wrought-iron cultivator- prong and share shown at P, and the method of setting the slack gear in motion inde- pendent of the steersman's weight. No. 5. Mr. Barton, Wood hurst, St. Ives, Huntingdonshire. Sept. 13. — Mr. Barton is a good specimen of a thoroughly practical man, who though not given to change or to new-fangled notions, embraced steain be- cause he saw in it the means of working a heavy-land farm to advantage. He is a cowkeeper, provides the London market with milk, so that it is a matter of importance to have abundance of green cropping. The land belongs to Mr. F. Annesley. It consists of 700 acres, 500 of which are arable-land of so stiff a texture that sometimes 6 horses are required to plough 6 inches deep. The under-drainage was commenced before steam was introduced. Half the farm is drained 4 feet deep. Experience has established the great worth of deep drainage followed up by deep cultivation. A great deal of the land is now ploughed on the flat. The subsoil is a gaulty clay. The average size of fields is 30 acres. The hedge-rows, which are kept low, are tolerably straight. The fields are undulating and devoid of timber. The 4-course system of cropping is observed : 1st. — Wheat. 2nd.- — ^Turnip- seed, tares, or peas. 3rd. — Barley, oats, and part wheat. 4th. — Two-thirds seeds and one-third beans. Red clover is taken once in 12 years. Dead fallows were dis- pensed with when steam was called in ; all now is in cropping. The land was formerly tilled by 27 horses, or 2 horses to 58 acres ; 20 are now kept. The water is good and abundant, save in dry Aveather, when it has to be fetched 2 miles. It is obtained from storage ponds supplied by drainage. The Apparatus was mainly bought of Messrs. Howard in 1862. It consists of an engine of 10-horse power, made by Messrs. Hornsby, and valued at 280/. They received in exchange for it an 8-horse power engine of their own make, and allowed 65/. for the old engine. £. The other meinbcrs were a cultivator, wiiullass, 1400 yai'ds) ^)/^^, of rope, &c. : — Price \ " Extras 20 10 Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — The repairs of the engine 110 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Eeed. are estimated at 30^. a year, of which only one-half is charged to cultivation, the engine being otherwise employed. The repairs are greatest on the rope and the snatch-blocks. In 1864, 800 yards of fresh rope were obtained of excellent quality, and last spring 800 yards more. Work done, and Mode of Working. — During day of 10 hours, first time over with 3 tines, removals included, 7 acres ; with 5 tines 10 acres, 6 inches being about the greatest depth — " quite deep enough." The steam pressure averages 53 lbs. ; the removals take 6 horses 4 hours. Notwithstanding the continuous rain since harvest, we found during our walk across the farm that fully 180 acres had been broken up after the crop. A consider- able portion of this had grown turnip-seed, and the apparatus was engaged upon it all the harvest. We visited no farm on which the tackle had been so efficiently used during the pre- ceding 3 months. The land so treated was lying in a fme rough state, and, like the reedy stubble, presented a very clean face. The engine was working when we saw it, and the tackle, with the exception of the cultivator, which was weak and strained, was in a fair state. Mr. Barton uses two snatch-blocks and anchors on each headland, and was about the first to do so. By this means he avoids stoppages. He has also introduced two small wheels in the framework of the snatch-block to facilitate its transport. To prepare for roots, the wheat-stubble is broken up by steam in the autumn, then manured and ploughed with horses. The remaining operations depend upon the state of the weather. A plough is " much wanted," so that the engine may be at work when the cultivator cannot be used. Cost of Work. — This is estimated by Mr. Barton at 65. an acre, besides interest and depreciation ; of this sum rope costs \s., and "other repairs" Is. per acre. An average year's work is about 400 acres of tillage. The first rope was bad, and cost Is. GcZ. per acre. The manual and horse labour costs — £. s. d. Engine-man 03 Windlass-man 3 Ploughman 012 2 anchor-men 34 3 hoys '^ ^ ^ Water-cart, boy and horse 3 2 15 10 Oil 10 Coal .. ..086 15 4 N.B.— The men -work now by the day. The first 2 years they worked by the piece, 2s. (jd. an acre divided amongst them, but they could not agree. Consumption of coal, per day of 10 hours, 10 cwts. = 7s. did. Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. Ill Mr. Barton thinks that the possession of 300 acres of such land as he farms would justify a man in attempting the use of steam. The horses he sold gave him more than 100^. towards his apparatus. Something more might be realised by the sale of implements displaced. He uses carts for harvest, and does not need more than 8 to secure it. The corn is stacked in the field. The live stock kept the year round consists of 500 head of sheep and 75 to 100 dairy cows. No. 6. The Duke of Manchester, Kimbolton, Hunts, Sept. 14. This farm consists of 700 acres — 210 arable, 490 pasture. Our time was unfortunately too limited to allow of a visit to the farm, which is some distance from the steward's office. At Kimbolton station, 3 miles distant from the Castle, there was no vehicle to be had to convey us, so that the time that we should have passed upon the farm we were obliged to spend in walking to it. The staple is a loam, the subsoil a loose and soapy clay con- taining chalk-stones. It is under-drained 3 feet deep, from 8 to 11 yards apart. The depth of the drain now being cut is 4 feet. The high ridges are gradually melting into the furrows, and the fields are fast being worked on the flat. The land is such as requires three horses to plough 3|^ roods a day 6 inches deep. Great improvement has been made in the size and figure of fields. The farm was partly taken out from forest land twenty or thirty years ago. The fields were then from 3 to 12 acres. They now average 25 acres ; the hedgerows are being straightened and divested of timber. His Grace, in thus remodelling his own farm, affords an earnest of what he is willing to allow, and anxious to see effected around him. He is beloved by his tenantry for his exceptional liberality. Anything like stringent covenants are unheard of. The tenants are chosen for their repu- tation as farmers, and then trusted to farm as they please, his Grace being quite convinced, that " if they farm for themselves, they will farm for him." A chivalric attachment to their land- lord consequently runs through the tenantry, in proof of which stands prominently out the dashing regiment of volunteer cavalry in Avhich they are proud to find a place. This feeling is nourished by various acts of considerateness ; for instance, the Duke has allowed his steam-tackle to go out now and then to break up a stubborn lot of land for a tenant with rather stubborn prejudices, and generally the result has been to educe a voluntary application for the tackle the following year. The 5-course of cropping used to be adopted ; the roots consumed partly off, partly on the land, but has given way since the introduction of steam to a course of 8 shifts — roots, oats, beans, wheat, clover, oats, beans, wheat. Clover could not be grown before deep tillage by steam. None of the land can be trodden with sheep 112 Report on Sleam Culiivation. [Reed. in the winter ; 25 acres of clover and 25 acres of roots are taken year by year, the clover-hay being consumed with the roots. The supply of water is plentiful, and the water good. When the steam-share or tine has well shattered the subsoil to a depth of 15 inches from the surface, the drainage is perceptibly improved. The texture of the land, too, is so changed that roots can now be grown where no roots were grown before, and half the root-crop is now fed on the land up to Januarv 1st, after wliich the sheep are removed. The Apparatus, bought in April, 1859, from Mr. Smith, consists of the two cultivators, windlass, rope, &c., price 200/., to which has been added a home-made 7-tine cultivator ; the previous engine of 7-horse power, bought in 1851, was exchanged 1863 for the present 10-horse power double-cylinder engine, valued at 300/., and made by Clayton and Shuttleworth, who allowed 50/. for the old one. The engine is employed nine months in the year thrashing, grinding, and sawing timber for the estate. Repairs, Reneivals, Wear and Tear. — The original rope, of 1400 yards, has been supplemented by 1000 yards ; 800 yards have been used up, and 1600 yards are therefore left, which are calculated to last two years longer. The old anchors and porters have been replaced by new and improved ones. The farm-bailifF, Mr. Wallis, estimates these expenses at 1/. per working day. He considers the repairs are less than in doing the same work with horses. A smith employed on the premises does the repairs. The breakages are principally caused by the tree-roots. Work done, and Mode of doing it. — The first operation, 5 acres per day, 12 inches deep; the second, 8 acres, 8 inches deep, removals being included in both cases. The following Table shows the number of days' work in each year. The average work per day is 6 acres : — • Year. D.ivs. Acres. 1859 ;]L .. .. 186 18G0 45 .. .. 270 1861 57 .. .. 342 1862 59 .. .. 345 1863 (new eiy'iiij) .. .. 47 .... 282 1864 47 .. .. 282 1865 56 .. .. 336 N.B. — A much larger amount of work would have been done had the npiiaratus comprised a plough, which is "much wanted." Cost of Work. — Formerly the Avork used to done by the day. Piece-work is esteemed much better. His Grace finds coal, Beed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 113 water, horses for removal and one for water-cart. The work is let to the engine-driver (who was formerly a team-drive.), the windlass-man, and the ploughman, who are paid os. an acre first time over, 2^. the second time over. The men find all manual labour, even for removals. In harvest-time they receive Is. extra. The general rate of wages in the district is from II5. to 125. The coal used, " Derby Hards," price IC5. a ton home ; con- sumption, 10 cwts. per day of 10 hours. These items thrown together shows the cost of a day's work to be — £. s. d. 6 J acres at 2s. 6r/. (average) 16 3 Boy, horses, water-cart 5 0. Coal, 10 cwts 8 Oil 9 Wear and tear and interest 10 2 10 The last item Mr. Wallis, in a subsequent communication, " con- siders excessive," resting his opinion in part on the fact that the eng-ine does three times as much of other work as of culti- vating. The horses are reduced by two. Six are now kept for the farm (two to 70 acres) and six for the estate. Those now re- maining have much easier work. Eight of the number are mares, which produce four or five foals ; they are turned off at foaling-time, and taken up for harvest. In comparing horse-labour with steam in the case of deep work, where many horses have to work together, there is no doubt about the advantage of the latter. The Marquess of Tweeddale's great plough, worked with twelve horses, got over about half an acre a day. The 7-horse pov\fer engine did 3 acres at the same depth with 50 to 60 lbs. steam-pressure. Mr. Wallis considers that farms of 400 acres would pay for steam-tackle. His experience at Kimbolton shows that not only is the yield of corn increased 4 bushels per acre, but that its market value is increased 2.?. a quarter. The staple is deeper and better mixed with subsoil, and produces a straw stout and upstanding. The root-crops are also better. Work is not only done with greater dispatch, but with greater certainty. It was once difficult to say when four teams would finish a 20-acre field ; but with steam the time of finishing can be stated within an hour. All correlative work is quickened, and the men had rather work with the tackle than with horses. The objections urged against the use of steam in this neigh- bourhood are mainly four in number : 1st, outlay of capital ; 2nd, the impossibility of reducing the number of horses ; 3rd, VOL. III. — S. S. I 114 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Eeed. the smallncss of enclosures ; and 4tli, the abundance of timber. As to the third and fourth objections, we refer to the report of Mr. Prout's estate improvements, which show the gain that woukl result to the landlord were he able and willing to remove the obstacles that now impede the use of the steam-plough. The second objection arises, in our opinion, out of an erroneous mode of looking at the question, as we have shown elsewhere. No. 7. Mr. George Armstrong, Graffham, St. Neots, Sep- tember 14. This farm, occupied by a spirited young man, come of a race of practical farmers, lies a few miles from Kimbolton, and is a portion of the Duke of Manchester's estate. It consists of two homesteads and 750 acres, 170 acres being grass. Mr. Armstrong has held it fourteen years. The soil may be termed a hungry clay on a clay subsoil, difficult and expensive to work, and enough to ruin any man who did not employ steam. The farm extends over an undu- lating hilly district, the buildings being at one corner of it. The hedges are low, divested of timber ; and the fields, well supplied with good pond-water for the engine, have been enlarged for steam, and now vary from 12 to 50 acres. The land is under-drained 3 feet deep, the drains being from 5 to 8 yards apart. The 4-course system cropping prevailing before the introduction of steam — namely, 1, dead fallow ; 2, barley ; 3, seeds or beans ; 4, wheat — has given way to a 5-course, barley being introduced after wheat, and roots substituted for dead fallow. The yield by this means is very much increased. The yield of wheat is now from 4|^ to 5 quarters, and roots can be fed on land which aforetime would not produce them. The land used to support 250 ewes ; we found there 700 sheep ; the stock of sheep, the year round, is 500. In place of 25 horses, there are now 16, or 2 to 72 acres, which is still a somewhat high proportion. But four of these are mares breeding every year ; and all are kept fresher and better at less cost. They used to have 1 peck of corn a day : " From May to September this year they had no corn at all." It may be affirmed that half the corn- bill for the remaining sixteen is saved. Carts are used in harvest. Mr. Armstrong feels assured that he could not have stood his ground on this farm without steam. We were very much pleased with the appearance of the farm. The abandonment of dead fallow, and the quick succession of crops, which might have favoured weeds, has not been allowed to do so. The Ajyjiaratns was bought of Mr. Smith in 1858. It consists of one 3 and one 5-tined cultivator, 1400 yards of rope, windlass, porters, extras, &C., 220/. ; an engine of 8-horse power, double cylinder, manufactured by Clayton and Shuttleworth, 250/. The Work done^ and Mode oficorking, — First time oA-er from Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 115 4 to G inches deep, including removals, about (5 acres ; and 8 acres the second time over, the same depth. About 200 acres of ground are broken up every year, and much of it is twice done. The apparatus is almost exclusively used in the autumn. Mr. Armstrong does not care about it before. " The moment after the corn is off we begin ; work all harvest from 5 o'clock till 8 P.M." Eighty acres were done since harvest, in spite of wet. The steam-pressure is seldom above 70 lbs. The mode of preparing for roots is as follows : the wheat-stubble having been manured is broken up at two operations in autumn, and in spring it is stirred once or twice. If Mr. King's experience were available here, one autumn operation would suffice. Cost of WorTi. £ s d Manual and horse labour per clay : — - . • Engine-driver 3 5 men, 2s 10 1 boy and horse 5 18 Coal 8 3 Oil 10 Total 1 7 3 = 3s. 103 (Z. per aero. N.B. — 3'^. an hour is paid for all hours beyond 101. Mr. Armstrong's estimate of the cost of cultivating an acre stands thus, interest being charged on three-fifths of the cost of the engine, and on all the tackle, and 400 acres being taken as a year's work : — s. d. Depreciation 10 per cent, on 3707. divided over 400 acres .. 1 10 Interest 5 per cent Oil Eepairs of engine and apparatus (30/.) 16 Maintenance of rope 18 5 11 Labour, coals, and oil 3 10 J Total cost per acre 9 9| Five ropes have been bought in all, the two first iron, the rest steel ; the last, bought in 1866, is expected to last till 1868. Breakages mostly occur in snatch-blocks. The tackle is in a good state. It has been let out, but has been so badly tieated that it is never to go again off the farm. The second year about 300 acres of contract-work was done, the two operations for II. an acre. The price was then raised to 1/. 10s. Mr. Topham, a near relative to Mr. Armstrong, occupying an I 2 116 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Eeed. adjoining' farm cultivated by steam, informed us that lie worked by tlie piece, and paid 2s. Qtd. per acre for 3-tine, and Is. Qd. for tlie 5-tine scarifier, including all expense incurred in re- jnovals, save the horse-power required. The coal used is termed " Hucknal Hard," price 14s. per ton at home ; consumption, 12 cwts. per day of 10^- hours. No. 8. Mr. Cranfield, Buckden, Hunts, September 17th, This fine farm of 1000 acres has not long been rescued by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners from the dominion of wood, scrub, and weed. Under their hands it was drained 4 feet deep 10 yards apart, bisected by a good main road, laid out in square fields, a new house and homesteads were built, and all was placed in the keeping of a spirited and intelligent man. The property then passed into the possession of the Bishop of Peter- borough. Fully 600 acres of the land is stiff and loamy — what is termed "woodland," with clay subsoil, intermixed with chalk stones. Three hoi'ses plough an acre, 6 inches deep, in 10 hours. The remaining 250 acres are easily ploughed with a pair of horses. The water is good. Part of the land drains into a large reservoir, and 5 wells have been sunk to supplement the natural pond-supply. Mr. Cranfield, although he sees no benefit from Steam Cultivation to drainage, confesses that he grows roots on land that never produced them formerly, and feeds them off too. He grows 150 acres of roots, and has never lost a crop on this stiff land since he has employed steam. That double the corn is grown, compared with the produce of the same area a few years ago, is not a result that can be attributed entirely to steam — the large head of stock, averaging 1000 sheep and 200 beasts, has something to do with it — and the expenditure of about 3000/, per annum in cake, corn, and artificial manure, is not an item that can be omitted from the calculation. The work on this farm is said to be never in arrear, " nothing is left to be done in the spring." The 4-course system of cropping' is generally observed in the district. Mr. Cranfield is impatient of this restriction, it being his opinion that those who have enterprise to farm up to the spirit of the time, making large outlay in artificial manures, feeding stuffs, and machinery, should farm with unshackled hands. It is not to be supposed, he says, that a man will lay down money in this manner if he is pre- vented from doing- as he likes. " One hundred acres of my land is in roots, one hundred and sixty in seeds, and the rest is corn. Putting what I do into the land I must and will farm as I please." He considers that a yearly tenancy and the 4-course system are antagonistic to steam culture. If the land becomes too strong to grow crops that will stand, some chanire of rotation must be introduced to tame it. Where a head Eeed.] licjjort on Steam Cultivation. 117 of stock as large as that of Mr. Cranfield is kept, the land must be in such a high condition as to render 2 white straws in succession the only safe course to be followed. The size of the farm was at first 570 acres ; horses were kept ; on the addition of the steam tackle 175 acres were bought, and still another 50 acres were subsequently put to the farm without adding to the horse power. A little later 201 acres were united to the fore- going, and 4 horses more were found necessary. ]Mr. Cranfield notes no difference in feeding or in work, does a great deal of scuffling with horses, which is heavy work. Harvest, he says, he could get through with 20 horses — he carries his crops on carts. The Apparatus was bought of Mr. Smith, in 1858, at the Chester Meeting. The engine of 10-horse power, double cylinder, portable, was made by Batlin, and bought in 1861. The first engine of 8-horse power was worked 3 years, and with the addition of 100/. was then exchanged for the present one. The culti- vator, windlass, rope, and porters, were bought second-hand for IGO/. Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — There have been 4 ropes. The first 2 were defective. The 4th is the best, it has lasted 2 seasons. The engine was repaired in March last, the tubes only were drawn, and the boiler patched. The cost is about 10/. a year, the half of which must be debited to thrashing, grinding, &c. The total wear and tear, exclusive of interest, upon the entire apparatus, is 4^. Qd. per acre. Work done and- Mode of doing it. — The first operation, 8 to 9 inches deep, removals included, 6 acres per day. About 230 acres (1st operation) are broken up by steam every year. This work is done in and after harvest. The preparation for roots is as follows : — the stubbles, having been manured, are broken up at one operation, 8 to 9 inches deep, in the autumn. When spring comes horses do the cross cultivation. The roots are generally grown with 2J cwts. of superphosphate and 1 of guano, but of no dung. The drill is used to put in wheat after beans, and barley after roots, Mr, Cranfield does not play with his appa- vatus. He uses it to break the neck of his work. He contents himself with doing merely the first operation, and leaves the second to be done by horses, under the strong conviction that they do this work much cheaper. The cross cultivation is inva- riably done by horse power. To v.ork the farm as he now does he would require 40 horses if unaided by steam. Were one-fourth of the farm a dead fallow every year, he would keep fewer horses ; but the fact is that he does much more than he did. The drill (Smith's) works admirably. lis Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. Cost of Worh Manual and liorse laLour : — £. s. d. 1 engine-mau 2 10 Plougliman 2 4 4 auclior-men 8 1 boy and horse 5 18 2 Coal 13 Oil 2 1 13 2 N.B,— The daily wage iu the neighbourhood is Is. 10c?. Coal — " Ilucknal Hard," ICs. per ton ; consumption, 16 cwts. i^er day of 10 hours. He considers that lie lias quite enougli land to employ a set of tackle fully. Were he to hire another farm he should certainly purchase another set. He thinks 400 acres of arable ^and suffi- cient to justify such a purchase. We found the tackle at work. Like the entire farm, it gave indications of being in careful hands. No. 9. Mr. E. Roberts, Berden Hall, near Bishop Stortford, Essex, September 19, 1866. This is again a good farm, on which steam cultivation appears to advantage. Things are well done, and farming is carried on for profit and to profit. In all there are 750 acres, 70 acres being pasture. Of the arable por- tion, 500 acres are such that 3 horses Avill barely plough an acre 5 inches deep. The land rests on the chalk. Over a large portion of this is stretched a layer of blue and white clay, and over this, with various depth and incline, lies a loamy staple, more or less partaking of the character of the stiff subsoil. This subsoil, being retentive of water, requires drainage, and has been drained to a depth of oO inches, the drains being 17 to 18 feet apart. Mr. Roberts considers that the results of steam are very perceptible in improved drainage. One part of the farm, about 250 acres, called the Potash Farm, belongs to Mr. Robert Gos- ling, well known in the financial world. Five hundred acres, called the Hall Farm, belong to Christ's Hospital. Mr. Roberts entered into occupation in 1852 ; he has since reclaimed 80 acres of woodland, at the expense to the landlord of about 20/. per acre. The labour account amounts annually to llOOZ. ; the rent to 1000/. ; tithes nearly 200/. ; and rates about 150/. The heavy land is farmed thus : — wheat, oats or barley, seeds, wheat, beans. The favourite rotation for the heavy land used to be wheat and beans alternately, with an occasional plain fallow. Since Heed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 119 the steam-plough has been used the summer fallow has been abandoned. The Potash Farm, which is most of it light land, is cropped upon the 4-course system. Mr. Roberts states that he has been able to dispense with 8 horses ; the number now kept being 14, which is equal to 2 horses to 96 acres. These remaining horses have been lightly worked, kept in better condition, and at less expense. The farm labour is also more advanced, and kept to the season. When the wheat sowing is going on the steam-plough is stirring the land intended for green crops. The work is better done, and the soil lies drier during the winter, is ready early in spring for seeding, and is surer of producing a root-crop. Of the crops generally, he remarks that they are increased ; also that the use of improved machinery necessitates the employment of more manual labour, and that of a superior quality. The water supply is plentiful and good. The fields have been much enlarged : they are now from 10 to 120 acres. The example here set may induce neighbouring landlords to give some encouragement to steam cultivation, or at least to allow some fences to be grubbed up. The Apparatus was bought of Messrs. Fowler in the autumn of 1860. The engine Avas one of the first six made by Kitson and Hewetson of Leeds. It is of 10-horse power, double cylinder, traction. A 4-furrow plough, 7-tine cultivator, 800 yards of rope, anchors and rope-porters, completed the set, at a cost of 780/. Repairs, Renewals, TFearatid Tear. — Mr. Roberts kindly furnished us with the following ample details, by which it Avill be seen, that while the repairs have been heav}^, much of the outlay has been due to the substitution of improvements which have followed closely one upon another. £. s. d. 1860. — First outlay for engine, plon.2;h, anchor ropes,|__,-, „ „ and porters \ Carriage of ditto ., 21 2 Q Man to instruct my own people .. .. .. 6 780 2 6 1861.— 500 yards of rope 32 5 New plough 97 New clip-drum 26 10 Carriage of new plough and clip-driun gear .. 7 4 8 Men's time and expenses from Leeds .. .. 30 13 6 7 dozen shares 4 18 Slades, breasts, skifes, &c 3 18 202 9 2 120 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Eeed. £. s. d. 18C2. — Carriage of anchor 45G 200 yards of rope 23 2 Changing anchor for full-sized une 15 Sundries 580 47 15 ISGS.—Xew cultivator, with extras 8G 2 3 Carriage of ditto 4 6 2 Ditto of other irons 2 19 "Widening wheels and addi]ig steerage .. .. 25 10 Pair of plough wheels 700 50 j^ards headland rope 3 5 250 yards steel rope 25 5 New clip-drum 15 New steam-gauge 3 10 Sundry irons for engine and plough, and lahour) jo -m r- c r T '? l o ; > 4o 10 7 01 man from Leeds j 216 8 1864.— 500 yards steel rope 52 10 Press pulleys for clip-drum 5 New pump 4 00 Skifes, and other parts for plough 12 11 Labour by men from Leeds repairing pump and) 09 a n other breakages j "^"^ Carriage of irons 1 106 14 7 1865. — New axle to hind-wheels of engine 6 10 Sundries 7 66 Ash-pan to engine 326 Plough-irons 480 Sundries for engine 5 11 Shares and points 11 8 6 Labour from Leeds, about 5 43 6 6 Summary. £. s. f?. I860.— First outlay 780 2 6 1861 „ ■" 202 9 2 1862 „ 47 15 G 1863 „ 21G 8 1864 „ 106 14 7 1865 „ 43 6 6 1396 16 3 Edwakd Egberts, Jun. Work clone, and Mode of doing it. — Ploughing (including removals, which occupy half a day, and engage 2 extra horses), from 5 to 6 acres per day, 6 to 9 inches deep ; cultivating, 8 to 12 acres, 10 inches deep. Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 121 For roots, the stubble is broken up in the autumn, dung'ed in the frost, ploughed by hoises in the spring'. If the weather permits, the land is deeply crossed and recrossed by steam. It is horse-ploughed with a \ery shallow furrow, to form a fine seed-bed ; the turnips are then drilled on the flat, with 2 cwts. of superphosphate. Cost of Work. Manual and liorse labour : average day's wage, Is. 8c?. : — • £. 8. d. Engine-driver 1 10 .. Is, a daj' extra. Ploughman 1 10 .. Cc/, a day „ Anchor and 3 porter-boys . . . . 4 3 Boy, car^ and horse 5 12 11 Coal 12 9 Oil 10 16 8 N.B. — Coal, "Langley Hard" and "Portland," 17s. per ton, home; con- sumption per day of 10 hours, 15 cwts. We inspected the tackle, which was not working. The engine had just journeyed back from Leeds, where it had been repaired and renovated, with the plough and cultivator, at an expense of 200/., including 40/. for carriage to and from Leeds. Over the engine a light iron awning has been thrown, to protect the works and shield the driver from sun and rain. No. 10. Mr. John Prout, Blount's Farm, Sawbridgeworth, Herts, September 20. Mr. Prout, a gentleman practically con- versant with farming in Cornwall and Canada, has afforded on this farm a valuable exemplification of what may be done towards rapid land improvement, either by the owner of the land or by the tenant, if protected by covenants calculated to foster enterprise. The tenant whose capital is just sufficient to conduct the ordinary processes of cultivation, cannot hope to do what Mr. Prout has done, it is only where the occupier has larger powers than these, that we catch a glimpse of the revolu- tion which might be wrought on the agricultural surface of our island. Mr. J. A. Clarke, who inspected this farm in November, 1865, has given so good a record of his visit, that we cannot but avail ourselves of it. " In the autumn of 1861, Mr. John Prout purchased two farms near Sawbridgeworth, Herts. The land, comprising 450 acres of clay and strong loam upon a subsoil of drift clay and cre- taceous gravel, was undrained, except in parts by shallow thorn drains — extremely foul with root weeds, and so out of condition 122 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. that the farewell wheat-crop of one outgoing- tenant is declared not to have exceeded 12 to 16 bushels per acre. Drainage, of course, was the fundamental process in the amelioration " The two holdings in one ring-fence numbered no fewer than 51 inclosures, averaging not quite i) acres each ; and what with meandering watercourses, and straggling fences of a wildly picturesque description, those innumerable boundaries were awkward for cultivation, wasteful of ground, injurious to cropping, and costly to keep in repair. By exchanges of plots with neigh- bouring owners, the outside fence was made rectilinear and symmetrical ; the bill, mattock, and spade, attacked the formid- able net-work of internal (' infernal ' our note-book seems to have written it) hedges ; the axe brought down the pride of scattered timber ; and the spade, pick, and earth-cart straightened watercourses, filled up old channels, and excavated clean-cut, direct, deep outfalls instead ; while five straight new roads were struck across the old medley of inclosures, dividing the whole farm into seven spacious plots of a generally quadrilateral figure. The work is now complete ; and Mr. Prout having kindly opened his bailiff's books to our inspection, Ave are enabled to state how much has been the cost of the whole. Of bushy hedge-row, a length of 514 chains (that is, nearly 6^ miles) was stocked, and the ditches alongside levelled in for an outlay of 155/. 12^. Now, observe how immediate is the profit to Mr. Prout as owner of the soil. The abolished fences having averaged 7 yards in breadth (measuring between the extreme limits of the plough on both sides), an addition has been made to the estate of no less than 16 acres, now lying in strips in all directions across the large fields, open to every operation of good tillage and manur- ing. The cost price of the land in 1861 was 35/. per acre, every item of expense included; and therefore the 16 acres gained represent a value of 560/. The hedge-roots were given to the labourers ; the brushwood was either buried in drains or used for burning ; but the 920 trees, consisting of pollards and inferior timber, came in for gates, gateposts, and other stuff, estimated as worth altogether about 42/. Here, then, we have a present return of no less than 602/. for an expenditure of 155/. 12.'?. during four years. . . . " This reclamation of waste ground by the simple demolition of useless fences, forms a striking example of safe and quick profit upon an easy outlay, sure to be imitated (one would think) over tens of thousands of acres. The earthwork of filling up old watercourses, cutting 130 chains' length of new ones, and levelling in a few moats, ponds, and waste places, cost 155/. 12^., reckoning 8s. per day for a pair of horses engaged in carting. The area of ground thus acquired is about 2^ acres, which, at Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 123 35?. an acre, leaves an outlay of 68?. 3*-. as the cost of the improved outfalls for the drainag^e of the whole farm. . . . The total outlay in four years was oil?. 5*-., and the return — l%h acres of land at o5?. — 647?. lO^'. ; add the wood, 42?., making a total of 689?. 10s. The expense of the new grass headland paths for the steam-ploughing engines does not materially alter these figures, for while 62 chains' length of new grass road bas been laid down, 74 chains' length of old road has been ploughed up and added to the arable ground. " This farm, once so foul, has been brought in four years into the cleanly condition of a well-kept garden, and during the last two years the whole has been ploughed and subsoiled 14 to 16 inches deep. When we visited it last November, the whole of this year's wheat seeding (223 acres) was finished, all the land for spring corn lay ready ploughed, and the land for roots was in the same forward state, requiring only the harrow and drill when sowing time should come, so that no heavy tillage of any description remained to be done until after the present harvest; and the perplexity of the manager was not, 'How shall I be able to get through the spring and summer work due to a large arable clay farm?' but, 'What new labour can I find to employ my men throughout the winter and spring ? ' The former occupiers are reported to have kept a score of horses at work in tilling but 5 inches deep. IMr. Prout has done all his work Avith 10 horses and a 14-horse-power Fowler engine ; and having entirely completed the reclamation, his intention is to reduce his force of horse-flesh to only five good animals, which will suffice to cart the corn into ricks beside the field roads ; they can manage this, because 8 horses led the last harvest up to the homestead. The amazing reduction in tillage expenditure from having a thoroughly clean farm, further appears from the fact that, in future, the engine, too, will have an easy time of it, as all its work will occupy only about a couple of months during the entire year. " That Mr. Prout has not spent a fortune in eradicating weeds and breaking up the soil to its present great depth of staple, is proved by the labour-book. The cost of hand-labour, including the wages of the steam-plough hands, the labour of stocking hedges, and of all the drainage, was for the first year 726?., for the second 1142?., the next 1020?., and for 1865 up to the present time, 880?. The ordinary expense of 10 horses need not be stated in figures ; but it is necessary to say what was the total cost of working the steam-plough. The hand-labour is included in the above amounts ; the water-cart horse Avas one of the ten, and is now one of the five. The coals, at 16s. to 17s. per ton, cost in 1861-2, 114?. ; in 1863, SQL ; in 1864-5, 165?. : altogether, 365?. Oil, 6cc., cost 34?. in the 4 years. Repairs 124 Report on Steam CuUivation. [Reed. and the addition of improvements in the maehinery cost 180^. in the 4 years. Interest and depreciation on 994^., the prime cost of the apparatus, inclusive of rope, saj at 12^ per cent, per annum, came to 47(3?. in the 4 years. Then we have the item of wire-rope worn out. The original 800 yards cost 84/. ; 450 yards, added in two years' time, cost 47?. 5s. ; and from personal inspection of this 1250 yards, we estimate the present value at one-third, or 43/. 155. ; thus leaving 87/. lO.s. as the total expense of rope consumed during the 4 years. The entire outlay for steam work then (besides the manual labour already included in the general account) is 1142/. 10s. in the 4 years. " Ten horses, in place of the engine, would have cost about the same ; but they would have made up only the old force of 20 horses, that kept the staple shallow and the crops foul. Twenty horses, in lieu of the engine, would have cost double the money ; but even if they could have cleaned the farm, it was utterly beyond their ability to deepen the 5-inch staple to treble its depth, and accomplish a light crumbly style of tillage, such as now enables the corn to be sown early in a pulverulent seed-bed, and green crops to grow where dead fallow reigned before. " That the steam-tillage has developed inherent fertility in the soil, appears from the fact that almost all the white-straw crop of 1864, and most of the roots too, together with 536 quarters of wheat, and about 300 tons of the straw of 1863, were sold off the farm. The sale took place by public auction; and the excellent character of the yield may be judged of from the prices made. Thus 147 acres of wheat, with the straw as staked out upon the land, sold for an average of 9/. Is. per acre ; 73 acres of barley, with the straw, sold for an average of 11. 19^. per acre ; and 29 acres of oats sold for an average of 6/. lis. per acre. " It is certainly not high manuring that has produced the good crops ; for Mr. Prout has not applied more than 640/. worth of any purchased manure during the whole four years. And that a consumption of sheep and cattle food has had little share in the business, is evident from the circumstance that, in 1863, Mr. Prout fattened only 58 oxen ; in 1864 he kept only a single cow ; and he never has farmed until the present season either a sheep or pig. The horses kept numbered but eight, as two of the ten previously stated to have been employed represent the average of teams hired. The head of stock on the farms in November con- sisted of 14 bullocks feeding in barns and houses, 1 cow and calf, and 8 horses, " Dr. Voelcker's analysis shows the soil to possess a practically inexhaustible fund of fertility, though apparently of very ordinary quality, like vast areas of similar land in Great Britain; and Mr. Prout might probably jiursue with advantage a garden Reed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 125 management almost independent of rotations, live-stock, and manuring. But his intended husl)andry will prudently embrace the sheep-feeding of a portion of the root-crop, with probably a purchase or stable-manure from London in return lor straw sold oF. This is one of the most surprising examples yet seen of the virtue of deep steam-tillage on a heavy soil, hitherto suf- fered to lie semi-utilised under a miserable, yet costly system of shallow culture by draft animals. But the immediate lesson from the case is the certainty of profit to landowners from clear- ing away those vermin-filled banks and bird-infestcnl scrub fences, which are now choking up thousands of fine farms, and obstructing the progress of the fructifying steam-drawn share," To this account, which our observations and enquiries completely confirm, there are a iew facts to add. The land is so stiff as to require three horses to plough 1 acre 5 inches deep. It is drained 3J feet deep, 10 to 11 yards apart, and is all laid flat. The hedgerows are all cleared away, and the open space is divided into blocks by five engine-roads — a main centre-road of gravel and four grass-roads — from which every bit of land can be cul- tivated. The cost of this clearance is seen from Mr. Clarke's sketch. The supply of water is mainly from two wells : other wells have been sunk at different points along the road, for the supply of the engine. The water leaves a chalky deposit, and necessitates the cleaning of the engine every fourteen days. It is difficult to say anything respecting the former course of hus- bandry, save that it brought but little grist to the mill. The present rotation of crops is trefoil fed off, oats, wheat, fallow (tares), wheat. This rotation has been followed since 1801, without manure, not even a flock of sheep, yet with increasing crops. All the land is under crop, be it observed, except a little where seeds grow ; the crops, roots, hay and all, straw included, are sold off. The stock is confined to eight horses and a few pigs. That the crops appear to increase is due to the fact that every fresh inch downwards opens to the penetratii:g rootlets fresh sources of fertility. This is a case of a grateful subsoil, whose resources have never before been drawn upon. At the last sale, which occurred immediately before harvest, 223 acres of wheat, 124 of barley, and 60 of oats had been sold as they stood for 3400/., to be harvested at the cost of the purchaser. The Apparatus was bought, October, 1861, of Messrs. Fowler. The engine, made by Kitson and Hewetson, is of 14-liorse power, double cylinder, traction, and is used also to thrash ; one 4-furrow plough, a 2-furrow subsoil plough, 7-tine cultivator, 800 yards of rope, a self-moving anchor, 20 rope-porters, and water-cart ; price lOGo?. Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — Rope, since 18G1, 780 126 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. yards ; cost of rope per annum, 22/. The heaviest repairs are on the 2 clip-drums. No exact account of repairs coald be given ; but we Avere led to believe that the whole annual expense, over a period of eight years, would not be more than 501. Work done, and Mode of doing it. — The following Table will give some idea of the amount of work done in 1864 and 1865. Since that time no account has been kept. Mr. Prout has given us a separate account for 1865, by which it is apparent that the result of 120 days' work is 879 acres done : — 18G4 and 1865. aass of Work. Width of Implement. Number of Acres. Depth in Inches. Days at AVorlt. Quantity per Day. Worldng Expenses each Day. Costs per Acre. ft. in. A. i:. r. £.■ s. d. £. s. 0.. Subsolling 1 10 280 U 15 82 3 2 3 1 14 9 8 Digging.. .. 2 6 193 10 11 38 5 12 1 14 6 8^ Ploughing .. 3 4 712 8 9 100 7 19 1 14 4 9i Cultivating .. 6 581 177.5 8 10 47 2G7 12 1 17 1 14 2 9 It is a noticeable fact that the proportion of work is less year by year as the farm advances toward a higher state of cultiva- tion. Thus the tackle was standing idle from Nov. 16, 1865, till August, 1866. All was in corn; there was nothing +0 do. One operation now, where there are no weeds, and the land is mellow, suffices to produce a better seed-bed than double the labour would have produced in 1861. In preparation for roots, the wheat-stubbles are broken up with plough and subsoiler from 12 to 14 inches, the top furrow being turned down 7 inches, the tines running down 7 inches lower, and stirring, but not invert- ing the bottom. This operation, which takes from 80 to 85 lbs. steam pressure, and is done at the rate of oj acres per day, is completed in November. In April this land is crossed with a cultivator to a depth of 10 inches, a harrow being attached. Cost of Worh Manual and horse labour : — Engine-driver Plougliman Twage and allowance) .. .. Ancliorman (wage and allowance) . . . . Three porter-boys Man and horse for water-cart Expenses per Day. £. S. d. Coals and oil 15 1 14 i^ veragc daily wage, 2s. '^ N.B, — Extra pay to ploughman and anchorman, 2(?, an acre when d-furrow Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 127 ploughing, making their wages up to 3s. 2d. per day ; Id. an acre when cul- tivating; 4id. an acre when subsoiling. Coal, "Staveley Hard," 20s. per ton, home ; consumption, 12 cwts. per day. The present horse power amounts to 8, this being just 2 horses to 100 acres. Three of these are to be dispensed Avith ; but as the requirements of harvest, when they are felt, will neces- sitate G to make two sets, one must be bought just before it is wanted. The engine-driver is a competent mechanic from Messrs. Fowler's Works, who can shoe horses, for which object a smith's shop has been built. It is scarcely necessary to state that the course here pursued is exceptional, and must soon come to an end. Manure will soon be needed. When this time comes, Mr. Prout is prepared to maintain a flock of sheep, to grow plenty of roots for them, and to feed the roots off upon the land, heavy as it is. No. 11. Mr. Thurlow, Baynard's Park, Horsham, Sussex. This gentleman has recently purchased this beautifully Avooded estate, consisting of 2000 acres. A small portion of it has been let in small farms of ] 50 and 200 acres ; the, remainder, 1400 acres, are in the owner's own hands. Of this portion 900 acres are arable. The land had been much mismanaged, and was in an exceedingly poor and foul state. For picturesque beauty, nothing could be better than spreading tree, sprawling tangled hedgerow, and deeply-rutted lanes ; but for developing the wealth of the nation, this neighbourhood is sadly in arrear. A little light has been let into it lately by the construction of a railway which cuts through, and has a station on the estate, and looks astonishingly at variance with the water-logged soil, the rushes, and other evidences of England a hundred years ago; The sunlight is dealt out to the land through masses of Avood. It is intended that the fields, Avhich were of 3, 4, and 5 acres, should average 30 acres. In prosecuting this Avork, about 600 acres haA'e been reclaimed and rendered productive. The larger portion of the farm is heavy land ; and though a portion of it is on the green sandstone formation, 450 acres are so stiff as to require the work of four horses to turn half an acre a day 6 inches deep. Part only of the requisite drainage is done, varying in depth from 4 to 7 feet deep, and from 1 to 2 rods apart. The benefit of deeply breaking up drained land cannot be disputed. The 4-course system of husbandry is followed ; dead falloAvs are abandoned. Steam has substituted for dead falloAV, barley, seeds, wheat ; roots, barley or oats ; seeds, beans, or peas ; and Avheat. Drainage and deep culture have rendered much of the land capable of carrying sheep. A flock of Southdown CAves, selected from Rigdens and other good breeders, is being formed. Nothing but the boldest of measures will effect the cure here needed. Half-measures and 128 Fepoit on Steam Cultivation. [Eeed. timid counsels would, under such circumstances, be fatal to success ; while a large expenditure, if directed with vigilance and judgment, must give large results. The working horses charged to the farm number 16, or 2 to 112 acres. When the same amount of land was divided amongst several tenants, they ] 4 Cost of other tackle 250 3G1 13 4 Interest on 361Z. 13s. 4f/. at 5 per cent., 18/. Is. 9<^/., or, divided among 20 days, 16s. \d. per day. The account would then stand thus : — £. s. d. Daily working expenses 1 15 9 Wear and tear at 7s. per acre, twice cultivated.. 1 15 Interest at 5 per cent. 18 1 4 8 10 Or 17s. D(?. per acre, twice cultivated. 134 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Keed. No. 14. Mr. Chambers, Colkirk, Fakenbam, Norfolk, Sep- tember lltb. Arriving in the midst of heavy rain we were unable to make any acquaintance with tbe farm. Our visit was prompted chiefly by an expectation of seeing a set of tackle, the parts of which had either been invented by Mr. Chambers or adapted from other systems. In 1860 he adopted the round- about system of working. The Engine, single cylinder, 8-horse power, is of Messrs. Garrett's manufacture. The rope, 1400 yards, was bad, and has just been increased by 700 yards. The Windlass is home-made. Different from most windlasses, the speed can be checked without checking the engine. The Ploxujh is made by himself, mainly in wood, on the model of Howard's old balance 3-furrow plough, and is said to work well. The Cultivator is a converted " Bentall," with a seat for steers- man on the hales, and a turning bow like that described as used by Mr. Cooper. It has 5 legs armed with shares or points, with 2 cutting-wheels in front. A square harrow carrying 7 feet, with a seat for the rider, is also a feature. This iinplement by working at speed does its duty well, and gets over about 15 acres a day. Of Work done Mr. Chambers has no statistics. His culti- vator breaks up from 6 to 7 acres ; his plough ploughs from 5 to fj acres a day. £. s. d. Labour and water-carting come to 14 Coals 5s. 4fZ., oil 8cZ. .'J 6 Interest on capital, wear and tear 12 6 Eemovals 30 Total cost per day ... 1 15 6 s. d. s. d. 5 acres jioviglied, costs 4 per acre, or with interest, &c. 7 1 6 „ „ 3 4 „ „ 5 11 7 „ „ 2 10 „ „ 5 1 8 „ „ 2 6 „ „ 4 5 The outlay has, of course, been small upon the apparatus, and the engine has not sufficient power. The farm consists of 597 acres of arable land and 110 acres of pasture. Part of the arable has been recently broken up from grass, and so cropped as to require more than the average amount of horse labour. 20 horses are now kept; and as a reaper is kept at work, and the corn is carted to the homestead, Mr. Chambers considers that he requires that number in harvest with a hilly farm, and, perhaps, a wet season. Steam has brought no general increase to the turnip-crop, but much of the land had been previously subsoil-ploughed, and some acres even trench- ploughed by horses previously. The engine thrashes, grinds, IkEED.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 135 and cuts chaff for about 100 head of stock. The steam plough did special service last autumn by getting in 150 acres of wheat in good time. The number of horses kept appeared to us excessive, but in fairness we state the reasons alleged lor retaining them. No. 15. Mr. Alfred S. Ruston, Chatteris, Cambridgeshire, Sept. 12. This holding consists of six farms of all sorts of soil, from a strong clay to a blowing dust, and what is termed a hot dust. In extent it comprises 9^0 acres, 800 being arable. For the most part the farm lies in " high land " and " low land." The low is fen-land. The steam-power is generally used on the high — that is to say, on about 160 acres, where the following system of cropping is observed : 1, barley ; 2, beans ; 3, wheat. The wheat-stubble here is broken up by steam in the autumn, worked again in the spring, after which barley is sown. The bean-land is broken up by steam and cleaned for wheat. The established rule is to steam three times in three years, and to plough with horses once. On some of the fen-lands steam is used every five years. The usual course of husbandry is as follows : — 1, fallow ; 2, oats ; 3, wheat ; 4, seeds ; 5, wheat. The object for which Mr. Ruston bought the tackle is fully accomplished. This object is, on his own high lands, to get a crop every year, a fallow being formerly given every fifth year, and he expects by his present mode of management to keep his land as clean as when fallowed once in five years. The results of the two first years defrayed the whole cost of the apparatus ; and now the land is as clean as it would have been under the old horse-system. A great deal of use of the apparatus has been made on the fen-land when nothing could be done on the high lands. Deep cultivation is here an invaluable process by mixing the clay and gravelly subsoil with the staple. Mr. Ruston has derived much advantage from turning up the soil with a plough purposely made for the work to a depth of 15 or 16 inches. This is only safe when the couch-grass is abolished. We found the finishing-stroke being given to the harvest. The crops generally fine. Mr. Ruston spoke of largely-increased yields since steam had been employed — fully one quarter an acre of barley and wheat. He has felt the advantage of despatch — steam has thus saved his barley-crop more than once : its use has frequently given him the benefit of the difference between putting the seed in well and badly. His horse-power was 26 ; it is now 20 — 2 horses to 80 acres. Mr. Ruston testifies also to the increased efficiency of the drainage effected by the intro- duction of steam. This we found to be no fancy ; for, notwith- standing the heavy and continuous rainfall, the fields felt firm and dry under foot. On some of his own land he takes corn- 136 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Beed. crops year by year successively, where formerly a system of bare fallow prevailed. No special preparation has been made for steam-cultivation save the enlargement of the fields, which were and still are small. The supply of water is convenient and plentiful : in quality it is hard, which is not usual with pond- water. One boy, sometimes with, sometimes without, a horse, suffices to convey it to the engine. The land in the neighbour- hood is for the most part in the hands of men who have taken no steps to encourage the use of steam-power. The Apparatus was bought November, 1862, of Messrs. Howard. It consists of an Engine, 10-liorse power, single cylinder, made by Enston of j £. s. d. Lincoln, which had been in use 3 or 4 years for general I ..;.-, ^ ^ farm-work. It is not let out, but thrashes from 500 to 600 1 acres of corn a-year, besides grinding, and tillage work, valuej 1 set of implements, windlass and rope (IGOO yards) , . . . 230 Deep plough 60 Side-harrow 3 10 Carriage and man to start the tackle 20 463 10 Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — The breakages have mostly arisen from the carelessness of boys. These, with wear and tear, have been very slight — principally in porters, wheels, and snatch-blocks, of which no exact account could be rendered. One rope has done all, and is now getting weak. Work done. — In spring, 7 acres a day of 10 hours ; in autumn, 8, 9, and 10 acres. Deep-ploughing, 2^ to 3 acres. Acres deeply I'loughed. Cultivated. 1862 84 1863 71 .. .. 247 1864 14 .. .. 219 1865 20 .. .. 338 1866 to Sept. 12 115 189 919 X.B. — Picmovals are ^laid for by the hour. They occupy from a half to a whole day ; 10 horses concerned in the removal. Cost of work. — Mujiual labour, 5 men and 4 boys : when work- ing by the day the ordinary payment is received, with \s. ^d. extra for engine-man, windlass-man, and ploughman ; when by the piece, they have 2s. (kl. per acre — working till 7 or 8 o'clock in the autumn. £. s. d. 7 acres at 2s. 6^7 17 C Coal — " Portland" and " Brindlcy Hards," 15s. per ton,) ^ _ „ home; ^ ton per dav ) Oil " 10 Total per day 16 Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 137 No, 16. Mr. F. Battcock, Hemingford, St, Ives, Hunts, Sept. 13tli, We found everything about Mr. Battcock indica- tive of sound sense and good practical farming. As in some other cases, so with him, steam is no plaything. If it could not be used profitably, it would soon be abandoned. Two farms united — one, Capt. Douglas's ; the other the property of the Rev. J. Linton — make an occupation of 970 acres. Of arable land there are 700 acres. The two farms extend 3 miles from end to end. One consists of 450 acres of heavy land, with blue clay subsoil, where 3 horses find ploughing 3 roods a day 6 inches deep to be stiff work ; the other consists of 450 acres of pair-horse land on a subsoil of gravel and yellow clay. The heavy land is drained 3 or 4 feet deep, the drains being from 10 to 11 yards apart. The fields are of a good size — 30, 40, 50 acres. There is still a great deal too much timber about, which the landlord objects to remove. A plentiful supply of water exists in the ponds, but in quality it is not good. Some difficulty is experienced on the heavy-land farm to procure water in dry seasons. Mr. Battcock has searched through 70 feet of blue clay and 50 feet of clay and limestone for Avater, but without success. The heavy-land farm was taken in 1854. One of the greatest advantages attending the introduction of steam, which took place in 1858, was, that the drainage, which had been undertaken earlier, began at once to act much better. This may be considered the key to every after improve- ment, tending as it does to increase the fertilizing power of every pound's weight of manure. It was soon found that the ridges could be turned down, and the crops grown on the flat. In 1861 so much improvement was experienced in the weight of the grain-crops as to make it politic to abandon the four-course, and to adopt the five-course system, which allows two white straws in succession. The landlord gave permission for this deviation from established custom. The tenant finds that though the 5-course gives less straw, it gives more corn ; in fact, to use his own expression, '■'Five crops pay better than four." The change entails less harvesting, and less trouble with the men, who always endeavour to shirk the heavy-laid crops of the 4-course system. The rotation is as follows : 450 acres are so divided into 5 plots of 90 acres each, that the land comprised in these plots lies together, and can be cultivated with the smallest amount of shiftings possible ; they are in beans and seeds, wheat, barley, oats, and roots. The land was strikingly clean, and the hedges, stacks, and general details all bespoke good manage- ment. The stock carried by the farm is 100 beasts and 1000 138 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. sheep all the year round. About 300 down breeding ewes are bought in every year and sold off fat. The lambs are carried forward and sold fat in the hogget stage. The 4-course husbandry is adopted on the light land, two green-crops being taken on the fallow-shift : this is only possible with steam. The horse-power has been reduced from 30 to 21. The proportion is now, there- fore, 2 horses to every 70 acres. The reduction might have been pursued until only 2 horses were left to every 92 acres had not Mr. Battcock desired to keep five or six good mares to bring a foal every year. These mares are turned out about May, and are brought up for harvest. Their help and the steam together so much eases the work falling to the other horses that " they require," Mr. Battcock said, "one-third less corn." The Apparatus was bought of Mr. Smith in 1856. It consists of the £. Engine, of 10-borse power, made hy Messrs. Eoby of Lincoln 260 2 cultivators, 5-tine and 3-tine, a windlass, driven by strap, 1 -|Q/^ since then a scarifier to take 6 feet, and 1400 yards of rope f And a drill, made by Butlin of Northampton 50 490 The windlass and 2 cultivators are of Smith's original model, and were found in a good state. The scarifier, to take 6 feet, was of the same shape, having two rows of tines and front disc-wheels. The engine, with 12|^-inch cylinder, and simple reversing-gear and steel fire-box, which he does not recommend, was in good repair. Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — The repairs are heaviest on cultivators, which is mainly due to the wheels. The wear and tear of rope is very slight. Two new ropes have been pur- chased. The first rope was very bad ; the next very good — it has lasted three seasons. The present rope is now two-thirds gone. The repairs of the engine over the whole period of ten years would be 100/. The present fire-box, a steel one, will last two years longer. The engine being employed in other farm- work, steam cultivation should only be debited with half the repairs incurred. IVork done, and Mode of doinp it. — During a day of 10 hours, removals (which occupy 2 hours) included, cultivating 6|^ acres ; scarifying, from 16 to 20 acres ; drilling (9 coulters 8 inches apart), 9 acres. In preparation for roots, the stubble is broken up with the 3-tine, and crossed with the 5-tine ; men are set on to throw out live couch-grass where it may remain ; the land is then manured and ploughed with horses, and sown. Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 130 Cod of Work. ^lanual and Horse-labour : — £. s. d. Engine-man 036 Windlass-man 030 Ploii2;hnian 016 2boys, 9f(! 16 2 anchor-men 04 Horse and boy 040 17 6 Coals 8 Oil ..010 16 6 X.C. — Daily wage in the neighbourhood, Is. 10c?. Experience has proved to Mr. Battcock that piecework by steam has cost double in repairs. Coal — "Langley hards," 15s. 9c?. per ton home; consumption, 11 ewts. per 10 hours. The straw of steam-drilled wheat is found to be much stronger than the other. The seed, being deposited upon a hard floor, flourishes better, grows with stouter straw, and less flag. Labourers at harvest generally evade such crops. Steam has made little way in the fens. The anchor of the lighter sets of tackle will not hold, and for the heavier the land is too rotten. Mr, Battcock is of opinion that no man estab- lished in business with less than 500 acres should embark in steam. A young man beginning might do so with 300 acres of ploughed land. The cases are different where a man has all to buy, and where he has to dispose of the power that has served him to make way for that which is to serve him better. A man already possessed of horses and implements would have to sacrifice 100/. in quitting them for steam. Had this gentleman to start again, he most emphatically stated that he would do so with the apparatus he now has in preference to any other ; and that he would never more attempt to farm without steam. Has long given up keeping separate accounts. Harvesting is done with carts. No. 17. Mr. Thomas Hammond, Penshurst, Tunbridge, Kent. This gentleman's farm consists of 540 acres, about half pasture and half arable, a stiff clay, and likely to benefit from deep culture. He has only entered upon it within the last twelve months ; but his case is remarkable, as he is one of a company, of twenty shareholders, which has been formed, one- half being farmers, to buy and work a set of Fowler's tackle. The Appaj-alus was bought Sept. 1865. It consists of Fowler's two engines of 11-horse power, double cylinder, traction, 800 yards of rope, a 1-furrow plough, a 7-tine cultivator ; cost 1573/. The engines are not fitted with the clip, but with winding- drums. 140 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear : 6d. per acre for tines and shares ; 6d. per acre for wear of rope. No other repairs at present. JVork done, and Mode of doing it. — During a day of 10 hours, with steam-pressure from 60 lbs. to 80 lbs. per square inch, in- cluding removals ; ploughing 5 to 9 acres — in some cases 1 acre per hour, 10 inches deep ; digging more. Cultivating 10 to 16 acres 12 inches deep. 500 acres were broken up from Christmas 1865 to 30th June last. The time required to take up and set down and run a distance of a quarter of a mile is about one hour, no horses being needed. To prepare for roots, the system is to turn up the stubbles, in autumn, 10 inches deep, run the cultivator across in April, and then work with horses ; steam can also be used with great advan- tage to break up the turnip ground for barley in spring. Cost of Work. Manual and Horse-labour : — £. s. d. 2 eugiue-men 07 Ploughman 3 2 porter-boys 020 1 man and horse 5 17 Coals 19 Oil and grease 2 1 18 N.B. — The day is IO.t liours. Xo extra pay is given except for overtime. Coals—" Hard," 19s. per ton home ; consumption, 2 a ton to each engine. This set of tackle is sent out on hire, and does — s. s. Ploughing .. .. 10 inches deep at .. .. 15 to 20 per acre. Cultivating .... 12 „ .... 10 to 14 The fields in the neighbourhood vary from 9 to 30 acres. Just one-third more Avork is done in a given time where the fields are of 30 acres than where they are of 9 acres. It is discovered that a furrow from 350 to 400 yards can be ploughed with most economy. A double engine set of tackle might, in Mr. Ham- mond's opinion, work with advantage upon a GOO or an 800-acre farm. There are two thrashing-machines and portable mills belonging to the co mpany. Such an appliance could be well employed where the holding was in two farms, seeing that the two engines could be located at the several homesteads. The double set consumes, in the same space of time, about 35 per cent, more coal than the single set. Care has been taken to se lect good engine-drivers : one is a mechanic froin Fowler's Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 141 works ; one is an instructed farm -labourer. An engine-shed is being prepared. No dressing is used with the rope. This company has already experienced the difficulties that will besot most similar undertakings. The members all require the tackle at the same time. The preference is of course given to shareholders ; these are comparatively few — or at least the farmers amongst them are few — and the double set is rapid in its work. Amongst the landowners in the district there is a disposition to favour steam : they are ready to allow their tenantry to make the necessary improvements. It is, however, the cost of the tackle which restricts its application. This visit was made after such a tremendous rain that no attempt was made to see either the work done or the appa- ratus. No. 18. Mr. George Morgan, Ninfield, near Hastings, Sussex, September 24th. — This gentleman occupies his own land — 2(J0 acres — out of which 30 grow timber, and 20 are in grass, leaving 210 acres of arable, a loamy clay lying on a sand-rock subsoil very pervious to water. Only 70 acres have required drainage. In some portion the drains are laid 4 feet deep, 2 poles apart ; the rest is drained irregularly to catch springs. There is a good supply of water strongly impregnated with iron. The farm did lie in fields of 6 or 7 acres. The average size is now 20 acres. Much has been done on this farm since its purchase in 1861 to fit it for steam cultivation. The surface, however, is very hilly, and it is so intermixed with other holdings that straight fences are out of the question, unless adjoining landlords will agree to "give and take." Through the farm runs a public road. Mr. Morgan estimates that the apparatus has supplied the place of 5 horses during 3 years. At one and the same time a house and farm buildings had to be erected, and a foul farm to be made clean, which it certainly now is. It would have been " impossible " for him to have hauled the building materials, and done the work of the farm with less than 12 horses. When the haulage was being done, the farm work must have suffered neglect. He has had not more than 7 horses. The course of cropping pursued is as follows : 1, roots ; 2, barley or oats ; 3, seeds ; 4, wheat. The old system in Sussex was wheat, oats, and fallow and peas, where no beet. The crops are continually increasing — a fact which is due to a liberal supply of manure and good drainage, as well as to deep culture. The Apparatus Avas bought in the spring of 1861 of Messrs. Howard. It consists of a 10 - horse power double - cylinder portable Engine, bearing Clayton and Shuttleworth's name ; a 142 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. 5-tine Cultivator, windlass, ploug-h, and 1600 yards of steel- rope ; 525/. The engine drives the windlass with a strap. It is used also for thrashing sometimes, when Bury and Pollard's mill-sails can catch no wind for grinding and chaff-cutting. Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — The engine and tackle have cost about 20Z. at the yearly overhauling. Mr. Morgan calculates that if worked 100 days in the year, 20 per cent, on the prime cost would keep all in repair, and supply the means for a new set of tackle in 8 years. His would amount to a charge (taking half the price of the engine) of 75/. per annum, 2 ropes of 500 yards each (50/.) supplied since 1861. The rope and rope- porters have been the greatest expense. The in- clines are so frequent and sharp that the porters are cut through in astonishingly short time. Work done and Mode of doing it. — During a day of 9 hours 4 or 5 acres may be cultivated per day, 6, 7, 8, and 9 inches deep, which requires as great a strain as an engine will exert with 60 lbs. of steam. The work done in various fields from the 9th October, 1865, to the present date, is as follows : — a 16- acre field worked in October the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, and November 6th. The tillage executed once, twice, and some parts three times, amounted to 40 acres ; which, divided by 7 days, gives 5f acres per day. The next was a field of 12 acres. The working days were the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 16th of November, 4 days to 12 acres (only once cultivated), or 3 acres per day. The apparatus worked during March, 1866, 10 days. 8 days in April were consumed in cultivating and harrowing SO acres, which gives 7 J acres a day. These facts are given, not to show the great use which was made of the ap- paratus, for less could scarcely have been done, but to show what really was done. Cost of Work. Manual and Horse-labonr : — £, s. d. Engine-driver 03 Ploughman 2 3 2 anchor-men 04 6 Windlass-men 02 3 2 boys 14 1 boy and horse 040 17 4 Coal and coke 10 6 Oil 1 1 8 10 N,B. — Men are paid for overtime od. an hour. Fuel — Coke and coal : coke, 17s. a ton ; coal, 25s, ; consumption, 8 cwts. per day of each. Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 143^ This whole district appeared to us to be sadly in arroar, little or no spirit being observable in landowners or their tenantry. Rent ranges from 10^. to ^Ibs. an acre, and yet we found that where the land was well farmed an average yield of wheat was 4 qrs. per acre. We were told of tenants being under covenant to reap their white-straw crops with a sickle. The rate of wages in this part of Sussex was during last year increased from 12s. to 13^. 6r/. per week — the hours being only from 7 till 5, with an hour for dinner. Their labour is poor in quality, and dear in price. No. 19. Mr. G. Palmer, Bengeo, Ware, Hertford, September 20th. We met with a hearty reception from Mr. Palmer, who has thrown into steam cultivation — as he appears to do into all he undertakes — an energy and enthusiasm which helps him to overcome obstacles that would daunt others. He occupies about 1000 acres, lying apart from his house in two farms ; one of 450 acres at Watton, 3 miles away, one at Bengeo of 550 acres. Of the total quantity 800 acres are arable. The heavy land is confined to the Watton farm, where 3 horses turn a furrow 6 inches deep at the rate of 3 roods daily. The soil there is a stiff clay. At Bengeo the soil is lighter — a gravel on wet clay. Mr. Palmer has rented the farms 28 years from Messrs. Parker and Smith. The Watton land is drained 4 feet deep 2 poles apart (the interval should be less). Water of good quality is plentifully supplied from ponds. The fields vary from 25 to 60 acres. The landlord has permitted his tenant to expend 200/. in stocking up hedgerows. The surface of the Bengeo farm is very undulating, and somewhat difficult to cultivate. The 4- course system of cropping is generally adopted in the district. This did not satisfy Mr. Palmer, who substituted for it the following : — barley, clover for sheep-feed, wheat, oats, turnips. This is followed on both farms. The Apparatus was bought in February, 1863. It consists of — £. An Engine, 10-horse power, double cylinder, portable, made)^q(^ by Messrs. Garrett ^'^^ A Cultivator, 1600 yards of rope, windlass, &c. (Howard's) 210 500 Extra porters, home-made, 25Z., 1 set of harrows, 25?. .. TO 550 Repairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — The Engine has not cost 5/. since it was purchased. The engineer, a thorough mechanic from Garrett's, looks ahead and detects weak places, bad joints, &c., before they lead to general mischief. Without such a man 144 Report on Steam Cultivation. [liEED. Mr. Palmer feels confident that his repairs would have been very heavy. He has a smith's shop of his own, where repairs are soon effected, and he would recommend no farmer to buy a set of tackle without having such a forge. Since 1865 there have been 2 engines of 10-horse power. He can work with either, but one is usually employed abroad for thrashing on adjoining farms. A new rope of 1600 yards has been purchased since 1863, which is now about half Avorn. The original wheels of the cultivator were soon used up : larger ones of wood made at home were supplied, which have worn much better. The implement has been strengthened in all its parts. There were no means of getting at the cost of repairs with any exactness. The apparatus being at work we inspected it. The engine we found in ex- cellent condition. It was driven at great speed, and the imple- ment kept the porter-boys on the full trot in the discharge of their duties — the pace was fully 5 miles an hour. The rope was carefully supported. We found a rope-porter with wooden roller in great esteem — also home-made. It is made at a triflina: expense. The wooden rollers are replaced as soon as worn by the wheelwright, and the wear of the rope is perceptibly reduced by their use. The iron rollers last no time under the pressure of the rope over the summits of the sharp inclines which here abound. We observed that the snatch-blocks were blocked up at either end of the implement's course to keep them more level with the implement. Mr, Palmer and his son had evidently given great attention to the working of the apparatus, and had mastered its details so thoroughly as to enable them to supply several deficiencies. Work done and Mode of doing it. — During a day of 10 hours with cidtivator, the first and second time over, inclusive of removals, 8 acres a day 6 or 7 inches deep ; with liarroxcs (harrows 10 feet by 6) once and twice over, 16 acres a day. In preparation for roots the stubble is broken up in autumn with one or two harrowings, which Avould be better omitted if the land is clean, followed by a cross stirring in the spring. Reed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 145 Cost of Worh. Manual and Hovse-Iabonr : — £. s. d. Enaineer 3 G Windlass-mau 020 2 anchor-men 4 6 Ploui;liniau 02 3 2poftei-boys 030 Boy, horse, &c 066 119 Coal (15cwts.) 12 Oil and grease 1 6 Total daily expenses .. .. 1 15 3 N.B. — Coal, 16s. per ton home ; consumption per 10 hours, 15 cwt^. =: 12s. Examples of work done abroad : — A 24-acre field cultivated once, harrowed twice = 72 acres, 5 days at 11. 16s. per day = 9Z. = 7s. O^rZ. per acre.*! \K 22-acre field cultivated twice, ^ three times = 55 acres in 6 days at^l?.'16s. per day = 10/. 16s. The number of horses kept on the Watton Farm before steam were 16, there are now 12 The number of horses kept on tlie Bengeo Farm before steam were 18, there are now 12 34 24 The reduction, therefore, amounts to 10, and leaves 2 horses to 66 acres of land — a very large disposable horse-power — which with the 10-horse power engine should be more than sufficient. For want of a plough, surplus horses are, clearly, kept to do what otherwise might be done by steam. The dis- tance of this farm from the house causes, of course, more outlay in this direction, Mr. Palmer is, however, perfectly satisfied with the result, and states that the corn-bill is now 200/. a year less than it used to be. He considers that if he had the Bengeo farm with 18 horses and the present engine it would be good policy for him to lay out 500/. in engine and tackle only to work 4 or 6 weeks after harvest, and lie idle all the rest of the year. 5/. per cent, on the 500/. ( == 25/.) would suffice to keep it in working order. Speaking of his own district, he considers the want of means on the part of the farmers a sufficient barrier to the application of steam. For the most part they have more land than their capital will cover. The landlords, too, are obstructive ; they are far too fond of game to allow the wide, sprawling, irregular hedgerows to be grubbed up. We listened to a strange tale about the combination of labourers to break up the machinery. But the spirit of the thwarted master rose with the difficulties that opposed him. Men were procured from a distance, to whom good wages were paid ; the work then went on in first-rate style ; for, seeing that he could do without them, his own people begged to be employed, and have since worked well. VOL. III. — S. S. L I-IO Report on Steam Cultivation. [Keeu. No. 20. Mr. J. L. King, Thorpe Hall, Scole, Norfolk, Sep- tember 10th. Mr. King-, being unavoidably absent, kindly pro- vided a substitute, who did the honours of his house, conducted us over the cleanly, well-managed farm, and gave us all the infor- m^ation in his possession. This gentleman, Mr. Bate of Sliimp- ling Place, Diss, having taken great pains to collect reliable data on the question of steam cultivation to lay before a neighbouring Farmers' Club, had watched the process conducted on Mr. King's farm with great closeness, and for one year had obtained a daily return of the work done, for the purpose of comparing the result with that obtained by Mr. Cooper and others. The farm consists of 660 acres — grass, 54 ; wood, 40 ; arable, 560, two-thirds heavy, one-third light and mixed. Three horses plough 3 roods a day, 6 inches deep, on the heavy land. The subsoil of the stiff land, which is drained 44 inches deep and 7 yards apart, is an adhesive brick-earth, mixed with stones ; that of the light land is a gravel. The farm has been 16 years in Mr. King's occupation and is farmed on the 4-course system. He hires the land of Mr. Holland of Bedham, near Saxmund- ham, who has granted permission to straighten fences, enlarge fields, &c., and something in this direction has been done. The fences are not irregular. The largest field was one of 19 aci'es, the smallest one of 6 acres. We were informed that great benefit had been derived through the drainage having been rendered more effective after the soil had been deeply broken up by steam : also from the larger area of root-crop obtainable, the heavier crops harvested, and the ability acquired by the land to carry sheep without injury. As to sheep, the advantage is felt on the heavy land being so soon ready to receive them after rain. It may also be mentioned that, while they are putting in barley in that district during March and part of April on the heavy land, it is of the utmost importance that the fallows should be forwarded at the same time ; and this, during his use of steam, Mr, King has been able to accomplish. The land which was in ridge and furrow now lies on the flat ; the stubbles over which we walked indicated heavy crops, and crops free from weeds. The turnips and mangolds were very fine ; and have generally been far more certain since steam has been employed, simply because the season has been caught and properly used. The failure of part or the whole of a root-crop is frequently due to the absence of the supplemental power of which Mr, King has availed himself. The number of horses was 20 ; it is now 15. This gives 2 horses to 75 acres arable — too many, as we ventured to remark. It was explained, however, that a new farm of 106 acres was in expect- ation, which would be worked with the same power as that now in operation. The teams, of course, have less work, and are main- Keed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 147 tained in as good condition at less cost : indeed a greater reduction has been thus effected than in the number of horses kept ; instead of 7 stones of meal per horse, he now gives 5. On inspecting the account of labour done, it will be seen that the possession of so many horses has proved a strong temptation to let the tackle rest. That only 217 acres were once cultivated between the autumn of 1865 and the spring of 1866, inclusive, is proof suffi- cient that steam had not often been got up. It was contended that the 300 acres of grain usually cut and stacked could not be harvested with less than 14 horses, which, in order that they may be in readiness, must have work found for them the rest of the year. We ii aintained that, provided the corn was stacked in the field and 1-horse carts used, 11 horses would suffice — 9 for as many carts, 1 for a horse-rake, and 1 for a water-cart. The habit is to use 7 carts and 2 waggons. It is difficult to discover the avowed impossibility of supplying any additional need when the need was felt, and then of reducing the power to its previous dimensions. When horses are kept, the prevailing feeling is that they must be employed ; it would not do to see the steam-engine puffing away, and the horses looking over the strawyard-gate at it, so the engine rests. But this course is frequently bad policy, for it would often prove better to spare the horses and work the engine. The addition of a plough to turn over the clover-leys would enable this gentleman to reduce his horse-power still further. Ml'. Bate is of opinion that none but the roundabout tackle and stationary engine is applicable to that part of the country. He spoke of many obstacles to the progress of steam-tillage, particularly on the heavy soils, the fields being very small, the boundaries irregular, and cumbered with trees, which struggle even into the fields, which vary in size from 3 to 12 acres. Yet they are bigger than they were thirty years ago. If steam culti- vation were more generally inti'oduced, he had little doubt that the landlords in this district would allow the removal of many of the trees, and of the unnecessary hedgerows. There seems now to be a disposition to make these fields larger, and to introduce steam. No special provision has been made for water, which is found in ponds and is of good quality. The Apparatus was bought of Messrs. Howard and Burrell in 1862. It consists of — An Engine of 12-horse power, double cylinder, traction,! £. s. d. made by Burrell, which is used in thrashing, abroad) 450 and at home, grinding and chaff-cutting ) A windlass, cultivator, snatch-blocks, porters, and 1600) r,oo 7 -iq yards of rope, made by Howard j "^ A Cultivator on Mr. Cooper's model, made by Burrell .. 35 721 7 10 L 2 148 Report on Steam Ctdtivation. [Eeed Bepairs, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — The repairs of the en(iinc have been very slight ; there is a good engine-shed, and a careful engineer, who keeps the engine in a very creditable state, and escapes breakages and wear which those ever incur who see what is amiss too late to remedy it without great cost. He is provided with a portable forge and vice. The mud-holes are cleaned weekly. The rope broke four times with kinks. It has been working four years, and will last the fifth. The frame of Howard's cultivator has been j)ulled out often by tree-roots. On Cooper's there has been no outlay. The windlass was in a good state ; all has been carefully used. The apparatus was not at work. Mr. Bate bestowed great praise on Cooper's cul- tivator. At the close of 1863 Mr. King made a careful computation of expenses, which was published. Before quoting from the statistics which were placed in our hands, we deemed it prudent to write, requesting to know whether his present coincided with "his past experience. He replied, " When I first commenced steam cultivation, I paid great attention to every part of the apparatus, and found that I must charge for engine, 10 per cent. ; rope, 20 per cent. ; windlass, snatch-blocks, &c., 5 per cent. ; and after four years' experience I do not consider that I have made an excessive charge for wear and tear." Mr. King's capital account shows how both wear and tear and interest are computed to fall upon the several parts of the apparatus : — Tear per Cent. . £. S. d. Engine .. .. Windlass .. G5 Double snatch-) ,„ n n blocks .. ../ ^- ^ " Cultivatoi- ..21 Porters .. .. 13 1.5 11 ditto .. .. 16 10 6 snatch-blocks 18 8 anchors ..10 Sundries .. .. 14 2 10 Kope £. s. d. 450 )128 5 \ A2 2 10 CO ' 680 7 10 j Charge for \ Cbarge for ^^^?'''°'i I Interest Interest ralriiKted I P^r Cent. . calculated calcuiatea , Annum, per Annum. | *^ d. 22 10 0*j -11* \ 11 5 20 9 12 4 3 10 9 12 47 13 1 d. 0* 6 8 3 2 8 li 3 23 1 4i * One-half tlie wear and tear and interest of engine, the other half being charged to other work. Mr. Kersey Cooper has entered into a similar calculation. Ueed.] Report oil Steam CuUication. 149 The report of his experience will follow the present ; but, for purposes of direct comparison, we prefer here to insert a, similar extract from his capital account : — Cliarge for Wear and Wear and Interest per Cent. Interest Tear per Cent. Tear calculated calculated per Annum. per Annum. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. .-. - u ^ c Fi tn 'A >* 8 =s ;:[ tecs r;< i^ ^ < Q 3q a 3'-3 ^ 5 "3 -a o 5s c 5 •2 W-c 0«^ t».=3 2 2* 2 9 2' 5 ■§ •§ 2 - 2' 2' 2 ° 2 2 £ '5 -2 o d T -= « d o o o = d c d "S' Q ■pfG '^Z 'Aioy -lad 1S03 o3Bj9Ay I ■*. •2'f I '8J3V •is'1 1S')3 agcJ3Ay •p-|6 'aaoy jad :)Sod aSBjBAy •poi ■«[ 'sjoy jod 1S03 oSB.iD.vy S* >n in in 'niom m «5 m ta 'n 'n \n tn ta >a tn m inin o o o m « m o >n m o m ^ ^S jijinirainininomin m vnininin>nin>nin in mm m mmmmicmmmiom O TT'^ ■^ ^'^^^*;r^^^i*^^ J m ci 1- 1-OC-. CO o 1- i-r. i-i-i--r. cr. 1- o ^to o •-= o 1-1-1, ;£ x » i-o Z!! 2 £1 ^ S ''' '^ S! '^ ri =0 ■»• 1-- — . ^j< o XI •— ' ^-« ci c* CO cj ^H I— « ^-< oi ci 00 r^ ^-« o o -♦<«". -fCi CO ro CO G-l Ci -—I CI Ci Ci I— I ^ -^ wo oi CI 6i c ■^ ■^ "-i 0» I— . Oi ^^ C o 2'^ ^ ;^ Eeed.] Report on Steam Cuiti ration. 157 and interest, 4GZ. 13*'. per annum. Assuming tliis to be fair, it will be found that horses would have done the work of the year 1804 (731 acres) at a cost of 5G0/. ; steam would have done it at a cost of 184/. 2s. lO^f/. Were every advantage to be pushed to the utmost, the comparison would be even more in favour of steam ; but we are contented with an approximation to the truth. Having reason to question the accuracy of our notes respecting tlie live stock, a note Avas forwarded to Mr. Cooper. Some extracts from his reply are here transcribed. " I find that 1 have increased the (quantity of my sheep stock, but the great advantage to me has been holding on, or buying more sheep in the spring of the year when farmers find a difficulty in holding hoggets on flock farms. By cultivating in the autumn 1 can do this. The green cropping before roots which I can thus obtain enables me to carry a much larger stock of sheep at that profitable period than I otherwise could do. I certainly grow more roots, more corn, and make more money from the land than I have ever done before, besides always being at the head instead of at the tail of my work. You may speak of the general advantages which are felt in every branch of the detail of my success from the application of steam power to the land, in doing the work wlien it ought to he done.'' He feels, in fact, that it improves the whole pace of a farm, deepens the interest of the men in their work, and impels them onward towards mental development. It may be remarked that although the price paid for labour is the same per acre, the earnings much depend on the depth of the operation and strength of the land, some days being high, the same with the consumption of coal and oil, the former varying from 1^ to 2h cvvts. per day. No. 22. Lord Leconfield, Petworth Park, Sussex, September 25. His Lordship's vehicle met us at the station, drove us through the beautifully-undulating park, where herds of deer were feeding under the protecting arm of stately beech-trees, to the farm which lies at the extremity of the woods which skirt the park. There we were met by his Lordship's bailiff, Mr. Smith. The shades of evening were descending, and we were prevented from forming so close an acquaintance with the operations at Petworth as could have been desired. That part of the farm over which we walked we found in a high state of culture. The fields, formerly small, are now enlarged, and are naturally well supplied with water. The 4-course system of cropping is observed. The land is drained 4 feet deep 2 rods apart. There are 700 acres — 500 acres of it are stiffish, requiring 2 horses to plough 3 roods 6 inches deep. Some will bear sheep feeding, some not. Considerable improvement is said to have taken place in the produce per acre, and in the texture of the clay staple, 158 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. whicli is due to drainage and deep culture. The fields are not well suited for steam culture, being very hilly, and the boulders near the surface. The statistics to be had were very few. His Lordship in 1861 bought a set of Fowler's tackle, later he bought a set of Howards', which was mainly for the use of his tenantry, who do not seem to avail themselves readily of the privi- lege. Mr. Smith expressed himself very strongly in favour of the round-about system on land so hilly as this. The difficulty in moving the heavy 14-horse power engine about he described as insuperable. Considering the steep inclines, the irregular fields, and the great boulders, he thought the fixed engine decidedly pre- ferable. The farms, too, in the neighbourhood are very small. Both sets of tackle include an engine ; one of 14-horse power, one of 10-horse power. Fowler's cost 1000/., Howards' cost 700/. in 1863, including one of Clayton and Shuttle worth's traction engines. The repairs, wear and tear of Fowler's are estimated roughly at 50/. a year. We had hoped to have received some particulars from another of his Lordship's agents who has charge of Howards' tackle, which is placed at the disposal of the tenantry, and which was said to have done more work than Fowler's. He has not, however, sent us the particulars up to the time of going to press. The work done with Howards' averages 5 acres per day with the plough, and 7 to 8 acres with the culti- vator, including removals, which consume half a day each, and the work of 6 or 8 horses. The cost of manual and horse labour, coals and oil, is 1/. 9a\ 2 p cart, boy and horse, 5s. ; 3 mpe iio'.-tor-bovs, os. Sd ) Coal, 1 ton " 15 G Oil 16 1 13 6 The 3 men have 4cZ. an acre extra divided amongst them for once ploughing and twice cultivating. The 4 boys have 2d. an acre extra for once ploughing and twice cultivating. The piece-work money, supposing the average day's work was 6 acres, would be 35., which, if added to 1/. 13s. 6d., will increase it to 11. 16s. 6d. This, then, Avill represent the expense of a day's work, without any charge for interest and maintenance, for which Mr. Cooper allows 20 per cent, upon the cost of the tackle. Wear and Tear from July 20 to JSiov. 18. £. s. d. 8 dozen shares, lis 4 8 21 clips, Is 110 2 pulleys, 2s 4 1 digging-breast 3 6 2 small rope-porters, 20s 2 00 5 rope eyes, 2s. 6r? 12 6 6 rope-porter wheels, 3s. 6(/ 1 1 1 new road clutch, 25s 15 Eepairing spindle in plough 6 Sharpening coulters (four times) 112 Incidental expenses 5 28 shiftings, with two horses, 5s 7 24 13 These repairs, effected during a period of 17 weeks, give 29s. Hid. a week. Mr. Cooper's elaborate statement of the work done, and the cost of doing it, which here follows, will command attention. Such details are much too scarce. In the first place we are directed to the year 1862. There we find the description of work, the nature of the soil on which it is done, the time occupied in doing it, and the worth of the work. The cost of the tackle, added to the expenses of working, are balanced at the end of each year, and the balance is carried forward. Thus, 631Z. 18s. lOd. is carried forward to the year 18G3, and 2G1/. 4s. Qd. to the year Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. is: 1864. The account stops Nov. 14, 1864; but it will be seen tlien that the balance to be carried to the account of 1865 would be 96Z. 2s. ' Date. Description. 1862. July 29 ,, 31 Aug. 5 ,, 11 ,, 13 ,, 20 ,, 23 ,, 26 ,, 29 Sept. 4 ,, 10 ,, 14 ,, 17 ,, 25 ,, 25 Oct. 4 ,, 17 ,, 23 Nov. 5 ,, 11 ,, 14 ,, 26 Dec. 4 Cost of Tackle Digging* Ditto .. . Cviltivating Digging .. . Ditto .. . Ditto* .. . Ditto .. . Ditto .. . Ditto .. . Cultivating Digging .. . Cultivating Digging .. . Ditto* .. . Ditto* .. . Ditto* .. . Ditto* .. . Ploughing Digging* Ploughing Ditto . . . Ditto . . . Ditto .. . Ditto .. . Horse water-cart . . Oil .. 24 shiftings, at 5s. . . 79 tons coal, at 14s. Carting coal, at 2s.\ per ton . . . . J Wearing parts and\ breakages . . . . J Incidental expenses Blacksmith's Bill ., For labour Deduct value of work Balance carried forward 15 25 44 16 12 24 12 30 12 48 15 24 43 22 12 29 17 60 20 15 15 30 26 12 Soil. Dcplli. Cost. 577 Stiff Clay Loam Clay .. Gravel .. Ditto . . Ditto . . Ditto .. Ditto .. Stiff Clay Stiff Stiff Clay Loam Ditto . . Stiff Loam Meadow Stiff Clay Ditto Gravel Stiff.. Gravel Stiff.. Gravel Ditto Ditto 7 9 7 7 6 6 10 10 8 10 9 9 9 Value of Work. £, s. d. 945 19 4 7 6 55 6 7 18 17 11 5 8 5 4 62 12 £. s. d. 18 25 22 16 12 20 12 30 16 5 24 15 12 43 22 11 36 5 20 52 10 20 9 7 6 15 22 10 19 9 1133 16 4 501 17 6 631 IS 10 501 17 6 N.B. — Odd measure is not put into this account, and the engine not credited for thrashing, chaff-cutting, and grinding. Work done for hire. 184 Repoi't on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. Date. Description. Acres. Soil. Depth. Cost. Value of Work. Inches. £. s. d. £. s. d. Balance brought forward | .. .. 631 18 10 1863. Feb. 2 Ploughing .. .. 9 Loam . . 9 , , 9 ,, n Ditto* 6 Grass-land 5 7 10 ,, 13 Cultivating 44 Gravel .. 10 .. 22 ,. 24 Ploughing 30 Ditto .. 10 .. 22 10 Mar. 2 Cultivating 26 Stiff Clay 6 13 ,, 5 Ploughing 13 Ditto . . 6 .. 9 15 ,, 7 Cultivating . . 24 Loam . . 10 7 4 ,, 12 Ploughing 30 Stiff-.. .. 9 22 10 ,, 24 Cultivating 9 Meadow 10 2 5 Apr. 18 Digging* .. .. 30 Stiff Clay 6 .. 20 May 1 Ditto* 19 Ditto . . 6 .. 15 ,. 8 Ditto* 26 Ditto ,. 6 18 15 ,, 23 Ditto* 6 Ditto . . 6 6 June 4 Digging* .. .. 14 Ditto .. 6 .. 14 ,. 24 Ditto* 13 Ditto . . 7 .. 13 July 14 Cultivating* .. 32 Ditto . . 7 .. 18 16 9 ,, 24 Ditto 60 Gravel .. 6 22 10 ,, 29 Ditto* 34 Stiff 6 20 10 Aug. 4 Ditto 30 Meadow 6 .. 15 ,, 10 Ditto 60 Medium 6 , , 30 ,, 17 Ditto 50 Stiff .. 7 .. 31 ,, 22 Ditto 32 Clay .. 7 22 ,, 29 Ditto 60 Gravel .. 10 ,. 30 Sept. 3 Digging 10 Ditto 9 10 ,, 5 Cultivating . . 24 Stiff Clay 8 .. 15 ,, 10 Digging 12 Gravel . . 9 12 , . 12 JCultivating and Har- \ rowing .. ../ 10 Ditto . . 9 5 ., 14 Digging* .. .. 15 Ditto .. 7 .. 11 5 ,, 17 JCultivating andHar-l \ rowing ; 20 Ditto . . 9 10 ,, 21 Ditto 70 Medium 7 .. 35 ,, 30 /Ploughing and Culti-'l \ vating* .. ../ 6 Light .. 8 •• 6 Oct. 8 Cultivating 27 Stiff 7 12 ,, 17 Ploughing 31 Stiff Clay 7 .. 23 5 ,, 24 Ditto 20 Gravel .. 7 : 12 ,, 28 Ditto 30 Ditto . . 8 18 Nov. 3 Ditto 30 Ditto . . 7 22 10 >, 11 Ditto 8 Ditto . . 6 6 ,, 13 Ditto 37 Ditto . . 6 ! 27 15 ,, 23 /Cultivating and } \ Ploughing .. ../ 17 Stiff.. .. 8 8 10 Dec. 17 Ploughing 30 Sand . . 10 22 10 ,, 22 Ditto 15 Stiff.. .. 7 15 ,, 26 Ditto* 10 Light .. 10 5 ,, 28 Ditto* 12 Ditto , . 10 7 4 ,, 31 Ditto rried over 8 Clay .. 7 6 Ca 1099 G31 18 10 ,681 14 9 N.B. — Odd measure not put in this account. En gine not credited for thrashing, chaff-cutt ing, and grinding. * Work done for hire. Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 185 Date. Description. 1863 — continued. Brought forward .. 96 tons coal, at 14s. Horse water-cart . . Labour Shifting 46 times, at 5s. Wearing parts and) breakages .. ../ Smith's Bill .. .. Extra expenses Oil Int.on63U. 18s.lOJ.,1 at 10 per cent, .. / Deduct value of work Depth. Cost. 1099 1099 Balance carried forward Cultivating Ploughing Ditto Digging* Ploughing* Cultivating Ditto* .. Ditto* .. Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Digging Ditto Ditto Ditto Ploughing [Cultivating and Har- !_ rowing Ditto Ploughing Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Cultivating* .. 12 20 17 7 60 44 60 60 16 24 18 16 62 76 30 20 10 30 15 32 Light . . Stiff Clay Gravel Stiff.. Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Gravel Ditto Stiff Clay Stiff Loam Stiff Clay Ditto Stiff Loam Stiff.. .. Ditto . . Ditto .. Gravel . . Stiff Loam Gravel . . 30 Loam Stiff Clay | Loam .. I Stiff Clay Ditto .. Ditto . . 10 Ditto 50 Stiff Loam; 1} 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 6 10 i. s. a. 631 18 10 67 4 33 16 90 12 11 10 17 11 10 6 11 4 8 63 2 9 Value of \V'oik. £. s. d. 681 14 9 942 19 14 3 9 681 14 9 681 261 4 6 4 12 12 17 4 14 6 72 9 2 30 8 4 30 8 12 9 8 30 38 15 20 10 22 10 15 24 15 7 10 6 10 9 27 6 7 10 25 Carried over 808 261 4 6 ' 497 12 N.B. — Odd measure not put in this account. Engine not credited for thrashing, chaff-cutting, and grinding. » Work done for hire. 186 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. Pate. Description. 1864 — con tinned. Brought forward . . Wearing parts and) breakages .. .. I Labour Shifting 33 times, at 5; Smith's Bill .. .. Incidental expenses Oil 60 tons coal and cart- ing, at 1 7s Horse-water-cart . . 500 yards steel rope Int. on 2611. 4s. 6d., at 10 per cent. 808 Deduct value of work Balance carried forward 808 Soil. Depth. Value of Woi k. Inches. £. s. d. 261 4 6 .57 11 9 82 19 8 5 10 6 5 9 2 6 51 25 4 56 26 2 3 593 14 497 12 96 2 £. s. (/. 497 12 497 12 N.B. — Odd measure not put in this account. Engine not credited for thrashing, chafiF-cutting, and grinding. The summary of the account for the three years is as follows : — Acres Worked. Expenses. Receipts. £. s. d. £. s. d. 1862 .. .. 577 .. .. 188 16 4 .. .. uOl 17 6 1863 .. .. 1099 .. .. 311 5 .... 681 14 1864 .. .. 808 .... 332 9 6 .... 497 12 2484 832 6 3 1681 6 No interest will be found charged against the outlay in 1862, because the apparatus Avas paid for by bills of long date. The work distinguished thus (*) was done for hire, Mr. Cooper finding neither coal, horse-labour, nor water. For work done at home, of course he has to find both. Yet with this difference he charges himself the same sum per acre as he does his customers. No. 31. Mr. W. L. Woods, of Chilgrove, near Chichester, and his father before him, have clothed an unattractive elevation with beauty. In the winter-season the climate is sufficiently severe to warrant the name. The house stands at an elevation of 280 ft. above the sea-level, and some parts of the farm are much higher. The farm is his own ; it consists of 345 acres of arable land and 50 of pasture. It may all be ploughed with 2 horses ; the sub- soil is chalk. In some parts the staple is a stiffish red soil, in Keed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 187 others a thin chalky soil, 5 inches deep, is found not good for turnips, but productive of wheat and oats. There are 2 courses of cropping : — 1st, the common 4-course crop ; 2ndly, 2 crops of swedes, turnips or rape ; wheat ; seeds ; oats ; or two years tur- nips, oats, seeds, and wheat. These variations are tried to adapt the cropping to the season. In such a situation wheat must be sown early. The fields vary from 15 to 17 acres. The storage of water, at such altitude, requires great attention, since the natural supply fails when it is most needed. Mr. Woods has spouted all his buildings, cottages, &;c,, and preserves In large tanks the greater part of the abundant rainfall of that neigh- bourhood. His arrangements, in this respect, have been very successful. The power at his disposal consists of 12 horses (4 bullocks were sold when the tackle was bought) and Smith's apparatus, bought in 1861. It consists of an Price. Engine oi 8 -horse power, with single cylinder and portable,! £. made by Butlin, the hind carriage being fitted with springs, [ 230 which greatly reduce the jar in travelling J Cultivators, 1400 yards rope, luindlass, porters, &c 250 480 The engine, which never quits the farm, is used about 36 days in a year to thrash, grind (when it works in a capital house), and about 10 days in the field, when it is worked up to 70 lbs, steam pressure. The apparatus has been well taken care of, and has cost little or nothing for repairs. The expenses on the engine cannot be put down at 5/. per annum. Work done. — The stubbles are not broken up till late ; they are then ploughed with horses. Steam is used in spring only to fallow for turnips, while the horses are engaged preparing for oats and spring-corn, during 10 days, in March and April. Removals included, which occupy 6 horses and 2 men a J day, the pace per day Is 8 acres with the 5-tIne cultivator: — Wear and tear Is estimated by Mr, Woods at 10^, per day. We thus estimate the entire cost in this case : — Per day. £. s. d, I The manual labour amounting to 19s., and the coal and) -i n a oil to 10s., make the total day's expense j 5 per cent, interest on 350?. (lOOZ. on engine) divided i -t -ir q amongst 10 days j Maintenance, 5 per cent, on 350?,, the work being light,) -i -rr a divided amongst 10 days ) 4 19 This gives 49/, 10;?. for 10 days' work. Many would be disposed to grumble at this result, and certainly the employment of steam 188 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. in this case reminds one of calling forth the ponderous energy of the steam-hammer to crack a nut ; but still Mr. Woods is satis- fied. If by laying out 50/. he is able to secure lOOZ., he is clearly in the right. Without steam in those 10 days, it -appears that no other power he could avail himself of would enable him to follow out the course of cropping decided to be best adapted to the situation. He gains a crop, and looks to this gain for reim- bursement. The average wage for day-labour is 2$. per day. The engine burns Newcastle coal, '21s. per ton at home. Consumption from 5 to 7 cwts, per 10 hours. No. 32. Mr. J. Lancashire, Micheldever, Hampshire. Catching an early train from Southampton on the morning of the 27th of September, we arrived to breakfast, and subsequently made a tour of the farm and saw Howard's apparatus doing some very good work. The farm contains 725 acres lying on the chalk over an undulating surface. On the uplands the depth of soil is about 3 inches, in the lowlands 3 feet. When Mr. Lancashire entered, five years since, it was exhausted of fertility and pos- sessed by weeds. The change wrought is due to the spirited investment of capital, in which steam has its share. Labour, for instance, costs 1/. per acre, while the annual outlay in arti- ficial manure, cake, and corn may be put down at a little over three rents. For bones and phosphates alone the expenditure is 500/. The owner. Lord Northbrook, allowed his tenant to en- large fields which now average 30 acres ; the hedgerows are low and denuded of timber. Something has been done to construct roads. The supply of water is scanty ; and, coming from the chalk, is so bad in quality that a wine-glassful of Le Franc's fluid is used each morning, which costs l^c?., and serves the day. The effect is surprising ; were it not for this remedy the wear in the boiler would entail heavy expense. The course of cropping is as follows : (1) roots, (2) wheat or barley, (3) seeds, (4) wheat. On wheat-stubble tares or trifolium are taken before roots, two crops in one year — a great point, much facilitated by the use of steam. On the inferior land he secures two root-crops, and takes wheat or oats seeded down. The seeds lie two years, and are then broken up for wheat or oats. Mr. Lancashire's great object is to get sheep-feed. A flock of GOO breeding ewes (with the female produce) gives an average of 800 mouths to be filled from the 725 acres, besides other stock. He farms also very much for the great Hay-market which he supplies with large quantities of sainfoin hay. For labour he is inconveniently situated. Mitcheldever is two miles distant. He has but eight cottages ; three of which, brick upon wood foundations, have been erected at his own expense. Reed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 189 The wages for ordinary labourers, 10s. a week, are high, consider- ing their indifferent character. The hours of labour, from 6 a.m. till 5'30. The employment of steam gives him advantages, for the best class of men crave the better wages connected with its use, and are stimulated to better pace. j\Ir. Lancashire very sen- sibly trains the men to the use of the engine ; he explains to them sectional drawings of the machinery, thoroughly indoc- trinates them into its principles, ensuring at the same time that they possess a competent knowledge of the combustion of fuel and the production and expansion of steam. Mr. Lancashire's experience indicates that the employment of steam tends to lengthen the labour-list. This ought not to sur- prise us if we bear in mind that the engine only " cuts out the work " of more thorough and frequent tillage, leaving the finish- ing touches to be done by the hands. Since these run short, he is obliged, like the American fanner, to resort to various implements. He owns 2 large corn-mowing and 3 grass-mowing machines. With the former, supported by 8 scythes, day by day he swept down 46 acres of corn, and was placed very advantageously in advance of several neighbours, who were caught by the heavy rains. To keep these machines thoroughly employed in their several seasons, 12 horses are needed. The entire stud consists of 14, that is 2 to each 100 acres. To have produced part only of the change he has done, " would," to use his own words, " have required 20 horses." The Apparatus was bought of Messrs. J. and F. Howard in 1861. The Engine, an 8-horse power double cylinder, was made by Messrs. Tuxford, and having been worked six years was pur- chased for 1 30Z. The new engine works up to 100 lbs. steam- pressure with as much safety as some engines with 45 lbs. This is due to extra stays, the advantages of which are not sufficiently known. A thick boiler-plate, unstayed, is of little advantage. If guaranteed to work to lOO lbs., an engine stands much longer than one of inferior strength. The Cultivator, windlass, 1400 yards of rope, porters, from Bedford, cost 240/. Repair, Renewals, Wear and Tear. — The engine : during the four first years repairs did not reach 5/. ; those incurred were due to frost. The slightness of the expense is attributed to the use of the fluid already mentioned. The repairs in 1865 were 5/. A stronger engine being required, the one of 8-horse power was valued at 130/., returned to the makers, who, on receipt of 170/. in addition, sent a 10-horse power engine extra stayed. " The engine does not cost 9^. a day to keep in repair and renew in 8 years. If I lay by 7^. a day. Air. Tuxford would be willing to renew it for the sum of the deposits so made, whenever it shall 190 Report on Steam Cultivation. [Reed. be worn out." The former engine has been used for thrashing-, grinding, chaff-cutting, about 2 days each week for 30 weeks. The rope was supplied in additional quantities last autumn, and the present — 1865, 1866 — the price of which, diffused over the acres cultivated, shows the wear then to be just \s. del. per acre. Worli done and Mode of doing it. — The day's work of 10 hours, including removals : — -First time, breaking up 6 inches deep, average 5 acres ; second time, 6 or 7 acres. It is customary to break up the stubbles in harvest, manure, and sow tares to be early fed, and then broken up for turnips : — Cost of Worh Manual Lahour : — £. s. d. Engineer 02 6 Windlass-man 20 2 anclior-meu 038 Ploughman 18 2 porter lads 18 Boy, water-cart, horse 05 6 17 Coal and oil 7 3 Total daily expense 14 3 N.B, — The men receive 2c?. per day extra, and occasionally a quart of ale. " Ale goes further than money." Coal — " Shipley Hards," from Derbyshire. 18s. per ton home, consumption 7 cwt. The choice between a long rope and infrequent shiftings and a shorter rope and more frequent shiftings depends, in Mr. Lancashire's opinion, on the nature of the soil. If a sharp soil, very little rope should be out ; some advocate 2000 yards of rope — he does not. The old rope is used between the anchors on the headlands, with a sling (Fig. A). He has often seen old ropes coiled up doing nothing ; sometimes served out to act as the top-wire of fencing. He considers 500 acres of arable land the smallest quantity on which steam cultivation should be practised ; would advise no one to go into it without intending to pay thorough personal attention to the machinery. If left to men, it will be sure to be a failure. A The engine-man is a raw recruit. There is a smith's shop on Eeed.] Report on Steam Cultivation. 191 the premises, but no engine-slied ; the rope is dressed with tar and grease before being put away. No. 33. Mr. Redman, Abbotstone, Alresford, Hampshire, September 28th. This gentleman is known to have used Fowler's tackle for several years upon extremely heavy land near Swindon, in Wilts. Within the last two years he removed to the above farm, where he occupies 1100 acres upon the estate of Lord Ashburton, He has taken his steam tackle with him, which may be regarded as an indication that he values it and cannot part with it. He speaks strongly of the improvement effected in the drainage of the strong land lately relinquished, by deepened tillage ; but declined to admit any increase in yield. The main advantage, he says, consists in the expeditious manner in which the fallows are cleaned, which facilitates the sowing of a large breadth of corn. Of the whole area of his present occupation 750 acres ai'e arable, 50 are water-meadow, 50 dry-meadow, and 250 down-land. The staple is thin — of a red calcareous nature — upon chalk subsoil ; it needs no drainage, and is well supplied with water from the river Itchen. Two horses make easy work of a furrow 4 or 5 inches deep. The 4-course system of cropping prevails throughout the neighbourhood. Mr. Redman is proposing to change it to the following: 1, roots (swedes) ; 2, roots (rape or turnips) ; 3, wheat; 4, barley ; 5, seeds ; 6, oats. The horses kept are 15 — 2 to 100 arable acres. Without steam he must have had 20. Although possessed of steam, he is convinced that there exists no power so cheap on light land as a pair of horses ; but horses fail where expedition is wanted. The landlord has let the ad- joining mansion and park to a sportsman. The game harboured in the neighbouring preserves must prove a serious hindrance to anything like successful farming. The Engine was of 12-horse power, double-cylinder, t