Wmmi

fflBml

■>■■.-.■:

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ '

Wm

■*'■••

IliliilP

■ ■ ■
lillllii

....

: ■■■'•• ^

«i;l

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

©s

LIBRARY

OF THE

Museum of Comparative Zoology

THE

ESSEX NATURALIST

BEING THE

Journal of tbc £$m f ielo Club,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Honorary Secretary.

VOLUME XIV.

JANUARY, 1905— DECEMBER, 1906.

" Men thai undertake only one district are much more likely to
advance natural knowledge than those that grasp at more than they can
possibly be acquainted with. Every kingdom, every province, should
have its own Monographer." — Gilbert White, of Selborne,

" Things seen are mightier than things heard. 1 * — Tennyson.

[The authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinions contained in their

respective papers.]

PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM
OF NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX.

1906

; ' To the attentive eye, each moment of the year has its own

beauty ."

Emhrson.

If you have seen, as I have seen

One morning in November,
Hie sun burn through a foggy screen

Like soms red glowing ember,
While yellow leaves from pencilled trees

Fly down like small canaries —
If you have caught a glimpse of these,

Then you have seen the Fairies !

If you have heard above the roar

Of traffic in the city,
The gentlest pecking at your door,

The faintest chirp for pity,
If scattered crumbs from off your plate

Have made brown wings the fleeter,
Then you have walked right through the gate

Whose keys are held by Peter ! "

Rose Henniker Heaton,

. . . . " The only real gain of wealth is that represented by the

storage of energy from without, which comes to us by the action

of green leaves waving in the sunshine"

Prof. H. Marshall Ward.

INDEX.

Alteration of Rules, 167

Annual Meetings of E.F.C., 25th,

April 8th, 1905, 68 ; 26th, April 7th,

1906, 166.
Annual Meeting of Photographic and

Pictorial Suivey of Essex, 1st,

June 23rd, 1906, 256
Architectuie, Norman, in Essex,

drawings exhibited, 163
Ashdon and Saffion Walden, Visit to,

l$5

Auk, Little, presented, 163

Avery, John, exhibits medallion
portrait of Peter Muilman, 07 ; ex-
hibits print of Queen Elizabeth's
Lodge, 162 ; exhibits original
drawings from Godman's Norman
Architecture in Essex, 163

Baddow, Great, Analysis of Water

from, 262 ; Well-sections at, 260
Baddow, Little, and Danbury, Visit to,

260
Barking, Mammoth remains from, 272
Barnes, Rev. C. E. and Mis., enter-
tain Field Club, 155
Bat, Hairy-armed, exhibited, 165
Bat, Serotine, from Pitsea, exhibited,

272
Beech Coccus, Felted, in Epping

Forest, 277
Beetles of the Eastern Counties, 57
Bidvvell, E., exhibits Fiie-making

appliances, 165
Billericay, Norsey Wood, near, Pottery

from, presented, 162
Birch tree disease, 276
Birds, Essex, exhibited, 168
Birds, Rare Essex, presented, [63
Birds, Wild, returning to London, 71
Bog-Mosses (Sphagnaceae) of Essex,

11 1
Bones, Fossil, from Clacton, exhibited

and presented, 164, 1O5
Bone " Needle " bom Chelmsford

exhibited, 168
Bone of a Whale at Mountnessing, 108
Boring at Ilford, Deep. 108
Boundary Stones ot Waltham Forest,

photographs exhibited, 162
Braintiee Finchingfield Distiict, Visit

to, 265
Brain tree, Flint implement from,

exhibited, 165 ; Pile Dwelling at

Skitt's Hill, further notes on, 137 ;

Reported meteorite from, exhibilc i,

Brambling in Essex, 275
Bream. Sea, in Essex waters, 238
Briscoe, A. E., Vote of thanks to, 162
Briscoh-, A. E., and Mrs. Briscoe,

entertain the Club, 264
British Association. Reports of Club's

Delegates, London, 1905, 152; York,

1906, 237.
British Science Guild, 163
Buckhurst Hill. Plusia nwneta a 1 , 13d ;

Series of Plusia moneta from,

exhibited. 273
Buzzard, Honey, from Kelvcdon,

exhibited, 164

Campiox, F, W. and II., Neolithic
man in Epping Forest {title), 169

Caves at Chislehurst, 75

Chelmsford, Bone " Needle " from,
exhibited, 168 ; Visit to abandoned,
156

Chislehurst Caves, 75

CHITTENDKN, F. J., Euphorbia esiila
in Essex, 74 ; The Bog-Mosses
(Sphagnaceae) of Essex, m; ex-
hibits Dipteron injurious toiDaflodils,
165 ; The Mosses of Essex, 204 ;
Daffodil Fly in Essex, 240

Christy, Miller. Elected as Presi-
dent, 68 ; Report of Presentation to
Mr. William Cole, 117; Whale at
Mersea in 1299, 135 ; conducts Field
Meeting, 155 ; exhibits etching of
French Hog, 161 ; presents rare
Essex Birds, 163 ; lecture on Methods
of Fire Making {title) and exhibits
specimens in illustration, 105 ;
exhibits photograph of large bone
of a whale from Mountnessing, it 8 ;
remarks on woik of E.F.C., 168 ; A
History of Salt Making in Essex,
193 ; exhibits reported Meteorite
from Braintree, 272 ; exhibits Neolith
from Pleshey, 273

Clacton, Flint implements and fossil
bones from, exhibited and presented,
104 ; bones from, exhibited, 165

Coast at Cromer, Denudation of,
photographs exhibited, ib2

Coast, Essex, Photographs of, ex-
hibited and presented, 70

Coccus, Felted Beech, in Epping
Forest, 277

Cockroach, new to Essex, exhibited,

Colchester, annual meeting of Phot"
graphic Survey of Essex, held at

11.

1906, 256 ; Great Grey Shrike from,
exhibited, 270

Cole, B. G., Plusia moneta at Buck-
hurst Hill, 13b; Prodenia Itttoralis,
a new British Moth. 136

Cole, H. A., original drawings of
Red Hills, Plates xxviii. and xxix.

Colk, W., exhibits Cockroach new to
Essex, 67 ; exhibits bifid earthworm,
70 ; Gnoiimus nobilis in Hainault
Forest, 73 ; Report of Presentation
to, 117 ; exhibits recently acquired
mammalia, 63 ; exhibits bones and
implements from Clacton, 164 ;
exhibits Honey Buzzard from Kel-
vedon, 164; exhibits Skomer Vole,
165 ; exhibits Hairy-armed Bat, 165 ;
exhibits tire-making Appliances,
165; exhibits Black Rats from
Essex, 167 ; exhibits De Winton's
Mouse from Lexden, i63; exhibits
Essex Birds, 168 ; Exploration of
some "Red Hills" in Essex, with
remarks upon the objects found,
170 ; demonstrates Oak-galls in
Epping Forest, 255 ; exhibits Yellow-
necked Mouse from Stanway, 270 ;
exhibits Great Grey Shrike from
Colchester, 270; exhibits Pelvis of
Mammoth, 272; exhibits series of
Plusia moneta from Buckhurst Hill,
273 ; making of Marine Salt in
China, 279

Cooke, Or. M. C, Fungi in Pairs, 64 ;
and G. Massee, Hymenomycetal
Fungi of Essex {title), 08

Corcoran, Bryan, presents Straw-
plaiting Mill, 163

Corresponding Societies' Committee,
Report of Delegates, at London,
1905, 152 ; at York, 1906, 237

Corticium comedens on Hornbeam,
exhibited, 67

County of Essex, Attempted partition

of the, 160
Crepidula fomicata in Essex, Notes
on. 73

Cromer, Denudation of coast at, photo-
graphs exhibited, 162

Crouch, W., makes observations on

a deep boring at Ilford, 168
Cryptococcus fagi in Epping Forest,
277

Daffodil Fly in Essex, The, 240
Daffodils injured by dipteron,

exhibited, 165
Dalton, W. H., exhibits fossils and

minerals, 69 ; Selenite, 147 ;

present rocks and minerals, 161

Danbury and Little Baddow, Visit to,
260

Dawes Heath, Visit to, 266

Deneholes, in Essex, 74 ; in Hang-
man's Wood, visited by the
Croydon Natural History and
Scientific Society, 75 ; Notes on,
and Recent Subsidence at Mucking,
241

Dent, Francis, conducts Meetings
in Hainault Forest, 1905, 159 ;
1906, 255

Denudation of the coast at Cromer,
photographs exhibited, 162

Dewhirst, J., exhibits diagram of
well section, 260

De Winton's Mouse from Lexden,
exhibited, 168

Dipteron, A., injurious to Daffodils,
240 ; exhibited, 165

Diseases of Fruits, Address on {title),
161

Dotterel at Fowlness, 71

Duumow, Visit to, and Inauguration
of Photographic and Pictorial
Survey of Essex, 157

Dymund, X. S., Sulphate of lime
(selenite) in Essex soils and sub-
soils, 62, 148 ; Conducts Meeting
in Hainault Forest, 255

Eadromias nwrinellus at Fowlness, 71
Earthworm, Bifid, exhibited, 70
Eastern Counties, Beetles of the, 57
Elephas sp., Pelvis of, exhibited, 272
Enterprise, an Ancient Municipal, 77
Epping Forest, Pasciated branch of
Holly from, exhibited, 271 ; Felted
Beech Coccus in, 277 ; Fifty years
ago, a Stroll in, 78 ; Fungi new to
flora of, 161 ; Fungus Forays in, 1905,
160 ; 1906, 268,269 ; Neolithic man in
{title), 169; Ricciella fluitans in,

276 ; Spring Rambles in, 1905, 156;
1906, 254.

Essex, Attempted Partition of, 160 ;
Birds of, exhibited, 168 ; Rare
Birds, presented, 163 ; The Bog
Mosses (Sphagnaceae) of, ill ;
Brambling in, 275 ; Coast, photo-
graphs of, exhibited and presented,
70 ; Crepidula fomicata in, 73 ;
Daffodil Fly in, 240 ; Deneholes in,
74, 75, 241 ; De Winton's Mouse
in, Ib8 ; Euphorbia esula in, 74 ;
Hairy- armed Bat in, 165 ; Hops in,

277 ; Hymenomycetal Fungi of (title),
68 ; Industry, Straw-plaiting, a lost,
184 ; The Mosses of, 204 ; Norman
Architecture in, drawings exhibited,

111.

163 ; Photographic and Pictorial
Survey of, Inaugural Meeting, 1905,
157 ; Annual Meeting, 1st, 190b,
25b ; Salinity of the Sea-water along
the coast of, 235 ; A History of
Salt-making in, 193 ; Soils and
Subsoils, Sulphate of Lime in, 62,
147 ; Waters, Sea-Bream in, 238
Essex Field Club, Ordinary Meeting.
Jan. 28th, 1905, bb ; Ordinary Meet-
ing, Feb. 25th, 1905, 66 ; Annual
General and Special Meeting, April
8th, 1905, b8 ; Annual Report of
Council (title), b8 ; Ordinary Meet-
ing, April 8th, 1005, b9 ; Visit to
Saffron Walden district, Ashdon,
W'imbish, Wendens Ambo, April
24th, 1905, 155 ; Visit to Epping
Forest, June 3id, 1905, 156; Visit
to Chelmsford (abandoned), 15b ;
Visit to Dunmow, Easton Lodge,
Inauguration of Photographic and
Pictorial Survey, July 8th, 1905, 157 ;
Annual Inspection of Hainault
Forest, July 22nd, 1905, 159 ;
Annual Fungus Foray, Oct. 14th,

1905, ibo ; Ordinary Meeting,
Oct. 28th, 1905, ibi ; Ordinary
Meeting, Nov. 25th, 1905, ib3 ;
Ordinary Meeting, Jan. 27th, 190b,
164 ; Ordinary Meeting, Feb. 24th,

1906, 165 ; Annual Meeting, April
7th, 190b, 166 ; Annual Report of
Council (title), ibb ; Alteration of
Kules, 167 ; Special Meeting,
April 7th, 1906, ib7 ; Ordinary
Meeting, April 7th, 190b, 1 67 ;
Remarks on work of, by the Presi-
dent, 168 ; Spring Ramble in Epping
Forest and Oidinary Meeting,
May 19th, 1906, 254 ; Inspection of
Hainault Forest, June 9th, 190b,
255 ; Photographic and Pictorial
Survey, Annual Meeting at Col-
chester, June 23rd, 1906, 25b ;
Meeting at Danbury and Little
Baddow Districts in conjunction
■with the Geologists' Association,
July 7th, 1906, 260 ; Meeting in the
Braintree and Punching field Dis-
tricts and Visit to Spains Hall,
July 28th, 190b, 2b5 ; Excursion to
Rayleigh Hills (Hadleigh, Thunders-
ley and Dawes Heath) in conjunction
with the Geologists' Association,
Sept. 15th, 190b. 2bb ; First Fungus
Foray in conjunction with the Biitish
Mycological Society, Oct. 3rd, 1906,
26s ; Annual Fungus Foray, Oct.
2oth, 190b, 269 ; Ordinary Meeting,

Oct. 27th, 190b, 270 ; Ordinary
Meeting, Nov. 24th, 1906, 271.
Essex, Photographic Survey of (see

Photographic Survey of Essex).
Etching of French Hog exhibited, 161
Euphorbia esula in Essex, 74
Eve, Robert, B rambling in Essex,

2 75
Exploration of the " Red Hills " in
Essex, Announcement, 192

Fasciated branch of Holly, exhibited,
271

Einchingfield district, Visit to, 265

Finchingfield, Fossils from, exhibited,
271

Fire-making, Ancient and Modern
methods of (title), \6\

" Fire Steel," exhibited, 273

Fishes of the Thames in 174b, 275

Flint implements from Braintree,
exhibited, 165 ; from Clacton,
exhibited and presented, ib4 "

Flint, Worked, from Thundersley,
exhibited, 272

Forest of Waltham, Photographs of
Boundary Stones of, exhibited, ib2

E^ossils, from Clacton, exhibited and
presented, ib4 ; Lower Jurassic
from Einchingfield, exhibited and
presented, 271 ; and minerals pre-
sented, 69

Fowlness, Dotterel at, 71

French, J., On some Geological
Sections at Witham, 274

Freshwater, T. E., presents photo-
graphs, 70

Fringilla montifringilla in Essex, 275

Fruit, Addiess on Diseases of (title),
161

Fungi, Injurious, on Hornbeam trees,
b7 ; Hymenomycetal.of Elssex (ti le),
08 ; New to Epping Forest, 161 ; in
Pairs, b4

Fungus Foray, Annual, 1905, ibo ;
1906, 2b9 ; in conjunction with the
British Mycological Society, 268

Gearing, P., exhibits Razor blade in
tree, 271

Geikie, Sir Archibald, Reminis-
cences, 80

Geologic Theory, Rustic criticism of,
80

Geological Sections at Witham, On
some, 274

Geologists' Association, Meetings in
conjunction with the, 2Co, 2bb

Gilberd of Colchester, The Family and
Life of (title), 67

IV

Glknn-v, W. W., Fishes of the

Thames in 1746, 275
Gnorimus nabilis in Hainault Forest,

"3
Godman's Norman Architecture in

Essex, original drawings exhibited,

Gould, I. Chalkley, demonstrates
Straw-plaiting and exhibits instru-
ments, 163 ; Straw-plaiting, a lost
Essex industry, 184 ; Hops in Essex,
277

Gravels, Fossils in Mid- glacial, at
Finchingheld, 271

Guild, the British Science, 163

Hadleigh, Visit to, 266

Hainault Forest, Annual Inspect ion

of, 1905, 159; 1906, 255 ; Dedication

of part of, as an Open bpace, July

2 1st, 1906, 264; Gnorimus nobilis

in, 73
Hanbukv, Sir Thomas, receives the

Club, 262
Harting, J. F., Whale at Mersea in

1299, 149
Hog, a French, Etching exhibited, 161
Holden, J., exhibits oil painting ot

Romford, 70
Holly, Fasciated Branch of, exhibited.

271
Holmes, T. V., Visit of Cioydon

Natural History and Scientific

Society to Deneholes in Hangman's

Wood, 75 ; exhibits a plan of the

Chislehurst Caves, 78 ; presents

Periodicals to the Library, 162 ;

Recent Subsidence at Mucking, 241
Hops in Essex, 277
Hornbeam, Injurious Fungi on,

exhibited, 67
Horrkll, E. C, Cockroach new to

Essex, 67
Howes, Prof. G. B., Death of, 67
Human Skin from church door,

exhibited, 273
Hutton, Rev. A. B., exhibits Sero-

tine Bat and Rose-coloured Pastor,

272

Ilex aquifolium, Fasciated branch of,

exhibited, 271
II lord, Deep boring at, I OS
Industry, a lost Essex, 184

Johnston, Andrew, Presentation to

the Library, 162
Jurassic (Lower) Fossils from Pinching.

field, exhibited and presented, 271

Kelvedon, Honey Buzzard from,

exhibited, 164
Kkn worthy, Rev. J. W., exhibits

bones and implements from Clacton,

>5

Land seer, Etching by, exhibited, 161
Lanius excubitor from Colchester,

exhibited, 270
Lavkr, Dr. Henry, Dotterel at

Fowlness, 71 ; Salmon near Fowl-

ness, 72 ; presents Yellow-necked

Mouse, 270
Leuc.iphcea surinamensis in Essex, 67
Lexden, Occurrence of De Winton's

Mouse at, 168
Library, Presentations to, 162, 270
Lime, Sulphate of (Selenite), in Essex

Soils and Subsoils, 62, 147
London, Return of Wild Birds to, 71

Mammoth, Pelvis of, exhibited, 272
Mapey, F. T., exhibits worked flints,

2"2

Maps, Ordnance Survey, purchased
for Museum, 70

Martin-Duncan, F., Lecture, In
Demeter's Garden or the Romance
of Plant Life {title), 164

Massee, George, Botanical Conduc-
tor at Fungus Forays, ie>o, 269;
Address on Diseases of Fruit ( title)
and exhibits diagrams, ibi ; Address
on Oncology of Pungi (title), 269

Massee, George, bee Dr. M. C.
Cooke, 68

Mavnard, Guy, Conducts Meeting,

155 ; exhibits Human Skin from
Church door, and object of sand-
stone, 273

MeldoLA, Prof. R., exhibits moths,

156 ; exhibits photographs of Boun-
dary Stones of Waltnam Forest,
102; calls attention 10 Meeting of
British Science Guild, 163 ; presents
photographs, 104

Me r gul us ulle, presented, 163

Me radon equestris exhibited, 1O5 ; in

Essex, 240
Mersea. Whale at, in 1299, 135, 149
Meteorite, Reported, from Braintiee,

exhioittd, 272
Microtia orcadensis exhibited, 163
Microtus .' koine 1 ensis exhibited, 165
Minerals and fossils exhibited, 69 ; and

rocks presented, 10 1
Moir, E. McArthur, Pottery

mounds in India, 278
Mole, varieties of, exhibited, 163

Morlky, C, The Beetles of the

Eastern Counties, 57
Mosses, of Essex, 204 ; Bog-mosses

(Sphagnacese) of Essex, 111

Moth, A new British, 136
Moi'HERSOLE, H., exhibits bone

" needle " from Chelmsford, 168 ;

exhibits " Hie steel " and wooden

smoother, 273
Mouse, De Winton's (yellow-necked),

exhibited, 168, 270
Mountnessing, Large bone of a whale

at, 168
Mucking, Recent subsidence at, 24.T
Muilman, Peter, Medallion portrait of,

exhibited, 67
Municipal Enterprise. An ancient, 77
Murik, Dr. J., Sea Bieam in Essex

waters, 238
Mm rattiis in Kssex, 167
Mus svlvaticus-tvvttoni, exhibited,

168, 270
Museums, On Natural History, 1
Museum Specimens recently acquired,

b6, 70, 161, 162, 163, i6-|, 165, 167,

108, 270, 271, 272
Mycological Society, British, Fungus

Foray in conjunction with, 268

" Needle Bone," from Chelmsford,
exhibited, 168

Neolith from Pleshey, exhibited, 273

Neolithic man in Epping Forest {title),
169

Newton, E. T., identifies fossils in
Museum, 164 ; remarks on bone of
AY hale from Mountnessing, 168

Nichols, W. B., presents bifid Earth-
worm, 70

Norman Architecture in Essex, God-
man's, Original drawings exhibited,

• 163

Norsey wood, near Billericay, Pottery

from, presented, 162
Notes, Original and selected, 7 r, 135,

275

Object of Sandstone from Wendon

exhibited, 273
Ordnance Survey Maps purchased and

exhibited, 70
Oriole, Golden, presented, 163
Orkney Vole exhibited, 163
Oyster Fisheries of Colchester : an

ancient Municipal Enterprise, 77

Pa^ellus centrodontus in Essex waters,

238
Partition of county, attempted, 160
Pastor, Rose-coloured, exhibited, 272

l',\i t.Son, R., exhibits injurious fungi
on Hornbeams, b" ; Birch-tree
disease, 276

Pernis apivorus, exhibited, 164

Photographic and Pictorial Survey of
Essex, photographs presented, 70,
164; Inauguration Meeting, 1905,
157 ; Annual Meeting, 1906, 256

Photographs of East Coast exhibited
and presented, 70 ; of Boundary
Stones of Forest of Waltham.
exhibited, 162; taken at Club
Meetings, presented, 164

Pictorial Records of Essex (see Photo-
graphic and Pictorial Survey of
Essex)

Pile-dwelling, Further Notes on the
Site of a, at Skitt's Hill, Braintree,
137

Pitsea, Rose-coloured Pastor from,
exhibited, 272 ; Serotine Bat from,
exhibited, 272

Plant Life, Lecture on (n'tle), 164

Pleshey, Neolith from, exhibited, 273

Plitsia moneta at Buckhurst Hill, 130 ;
specimens exhibited, 273

Portrait of Dr. H. C. Sorby presented,
271

Pottery Mounds in India, 278

Pottery from Norsey Wood, near Bil-
lericay, presented, 162

Power, Water, from the Thames, 280

Presentation to Mr. William Cole
(Report), 117

Presidential Address, Mr. Rudler's,
April 8th, 1905, I

Prodenia littoralis, a new British
Moth, 136

Queen Elizabeth's Lodge in 1 7Q4,
Print of exhibited, 162

Randall, Master, piesents bones and
implements from ilacton, 164

Rat, Black, in Essex, 167

Rayleigh Hills, Visit to, 206

Reader, Fkancls W., Futther Notes
on the Pile-dwelling Site at Skitt's
Hill, Braintree, 137

Reader, Thos. W., and Dr. A. E.
Salter, conduct meeting at Rayleigh
Hills, 266

" Red Hills," Exploration of some, in
Essex, 170; announcement of ex-
ploration of, 192

Ricciella fluitans in Epping Forest,
276

Rocks and Minerals presented, 161

Romford, Oil-painting of, exhibited, 70

VI.

Ri'DLER, F. W., Presidential Address
on Natural History Museums, April
8th, 1905, 1 ; Vote of thanks to, 70 ;
Report as Club's Delegate at British
Association, London, 152 ; at York.

237
KUGGLES-BRlSE, Mr. and Mrs.

Archibald, receive the Club at

Spain's Hall, 265
Rules, Alteration of, 167

Saffron Walden, Visit to, 155
Salinity of the Sea-water along the

Coast of Essex, 235
Salmon near Southend, 72
Salt-making in Essex, A History of,

*93
Salt, Marine, making of, in China, 279
Salter, Dr. A. E., presents pottery

from near Billericay, 162 ; conducts

Field Meeting, 260 ; and T. AV.

Reader conduct Field Meeting, 266
Sandstone Object from Wendon, ex-
hibited, 273
Sea-water along the coast of Essex,

Salinity of, 235
Section, Geological, at Witham, 274
Selenite, 62, 147
Serotine Bat from Pitsea, exhibited,

272
Shenstone, J. C, an Ancient

Municipal Enterprise, 77
Shkrrin, Mr., presents Essex Birds,

168
Shrew, Pigmy, exhibited, 163
Shrike. Great Grey, from Colchester,

exhibited, 270
Sillem, C. (See Webb, W.M.)
Skan, S. A., Demonstrates at Field

Meetings, 156, 254.
" Smoother," Wooden, exhibited, 273
Soils and Subsoiis, Sulphate of lime in,

62, 147
Sorby, Dr. H. C, On the Salinity of

the Sea-water along the Coast of

Essex, 235 ; presents Portrait of

himself, 271
Sorex minutus exhibited, 163
Southend, Salmon near, 72
.Spain's Hall, Visit to, 265
Sphagnaceae of Essex, 11 1
Spiller, J., exhibits photographs of

East coast, 70; exhibits photographs

of coast at Cromer, 162
Sponges, A lecture on {title), 271
Stanway, Yellow-necked mouse from,

exhibited, 270
Stones, Boundary, of Forest of

Waltham. Photographs of, exhi-
bited, 162

Straw-Plaiting, in Essex, 184 ; Mill

presented, 163
Subsidence at Mucking, On a Recent,

241
Sulphate of Lime in Essex Soils and

Subsoils, 62, 147
Survey Maps, Ordnance, purchased

and exhibited, 70
Survey, Photographc and Pictorial, of

Essex (see Photographic Survey of

Essex) .

Tul pa vulgaris, varieties of, exhibited,

lhames, Fishes of the, in 1746, 275 ;

water power from the, 280
Thompson, Percy, exhibits fasciated

branch of Holly, 2? 1 ; exhibits and

presents fossils, 271
Thompson, Prof. S. P., lectures on

Gilberd of Colchester {title), 67 ;

elected Honorary Member, 68
Thundersley, Visit to, 266 ; worked

flints from, exhibited, 272
Tree, Razor blade in a, exhibited, 270

Vesperugo leisleri exhibited, 165

Ves peril go serotinus exhibited, 272
Vole, Orkney, exhibited, 163
Vole. Skomer, exhibited, 165

Warwick, Countess of, and Lord

Brooke, receive Club, 157
Water, analysis of, from Great Baddow,

262 ; Power from Thames, 280J
Webb, W. Mark, and C. Sillem,

The British Woodlice, 38, 81,97
Well-Section at Great Baddow, 260
Wendens Ambo and Saffron Walden,

Meeting at, 155 ; Sandstone, object

from, exhibited, 273
Whale, at Mersea in 1299, 135, 149 ;

Large bone of, at Mountnessing, 168
Whitehead, H., Ricciella fluitans in

Epping Forest, 276 ; Felted Beech

Coccus in Epping Forest, 277
Wimbishand Saffron Walden, Meeting

at . 155
Witham, On some geological sections

at, 274
Woodlice, The British, 38, 81, 97
Woolf, Yeatman, Lecture on

Sponges (title), 271

PLATES AND
ILL USTRA TIONS,
Plan of Chislehurst Caves, 76
59 Diagrams to illustrate the paper on
British Woodlice by W. M. Webb
and C. Sillem, pp. 39-105

Vll.

Plate I. Ligia oceanic a, Linne, The

Quay-louse, lo face 82.1
Plate II. Ligidium hypnorum, Cuvier,

to face 85
Plate III. Trichoniscus fusillus,

Brandt, to face 84
Plate IV. Trichoniscus vivid us, Koch,

to face 85
Plate V. Tricho uncus roseus, Koch,

to face 86
Plate VI. Trichoniscoides albidus,

Budde-Lund, to face, 87
Plate VII. Haplophthalmus mengii,

Zaddach, to face 88
Plate VIII. Haplophthalmus danicus,

Budde-Lund, to face, 89
Plate IX. Oniscus aseltus, Linne

(The Common Slater), to face 90
Plate X. Philoscia muscorum, Scopoli,

to face 91
Plate XI. Philoscia conchii, Kinahan,

to j ace 92
Plate XI I. Plaivarthrus hoffmann-

seggii, Brandt, to face 93
Plate XIII. Po/cellioscaber, Latreille,

to face 94
Plate XIV. Porcellio pictus, Brandt

and Ratzburg, to face c>5
Plate XV. Porcellio diLitatus, Brandt,

to f ice 96
Plate XVI. Porcellio rathkei, Brandt,

to face 96
Plate XVII. Porcellio laevis Latreille,

to face t>7
Plate XV III. Porcellio raizeburgii,

Biandt to face 98
Plate XIX. AJetopottorthus p/uinosus,

Brandt, to face 99
Plate XX, Metoponorthus cingendus,

Kinahan, to face 100
Plate XXI. Cylisticus convextis, De

Geer, to face loi
Plate XXII. Armadillidium nasatian,

Budde-Lund, to face 102
Plate XXIII. Armadillidium viil-

gare, Latreille, to face 103
Plate XXIV. At mad illidium pulchel -

lam, Zencker, to face 104
Plate XXV. Armadillidium depres-

sum, Brandt, to face 105
Plate XXVI. Figs. 1 and 2. Skiti's

Hill, Braintree. General Views of

Excavations, to face 138
Plate XXVII. Objects from Skitt's

Hill, to face 143
Plan of portion of the Relic-bed,

Skitt's Hill, 138
General section of the excavations at

Skitt's Hill, Braintree, 140
Enlarged portion of Relic-Bed, 141
Plate XXVI II. Exploiing the Red

Hill, Burnham, to face 170
Plate XXIX.. Red Hill on Bower

Hall Farm, East Meisea, to face 174
Objects from Red Hill at Burnham,

) 7 2

Objects from Red Hills, &c, 174

Pottery fragments (Romano-British)
fiom Red Hill on Bower Hall Farm,
East Mersea, 175

Double prong-shaped piece of pottery,
from a Red Hill at Ivy House Farm,
East Mersea, 1 "6

Suggestion as to the use of the
" T-pieces" 179

Bone " Engines" for splitting straw,

t 185

Iron Straw-splitters, from Mr. E.
BedwelPs Collection, 187

Straw-splitters from Mr. E. Bedwell's
Collection, 188

Wooden Mill for flattening the straw
" splints," 189.

Hand Roller for flattening the straw,
190

Unfinished and finished Plaits, 191

Plate XXX. Map of the Northern Half
of the Essex Coast, showing approxi-
mately the sites of the Forty-five
Essex Salt pans mentioned in
Domesdav Book (1080), to face 196

Plate XXXI. Fig. 2 The Maldon
Salt-works. Fig. 3. The Settling-
pond at the Maldon Salt works, to
face 20 1

Plate XXXII. Salt crystals f.om
Maldon Salt-works, to face 203

Map to show the position of the
Mucking Suhsidence (1906), 242

Sections of Mucking (1906J and Black-
heath (1878 and 1S80) Subsidences,
243

1 Note. -The Plates may either be arranged as indicated, or placed together at the end of
the volume.

Vlll.

ERRATA.

Page 8 Jine 17 from foot, for " promimently " read prominently.

32 line 12 from foot, for " Amercian " read American.

61 bottom line, for " 1900 " read 1893.

69 line 9 from foot, for " Frankport ** read Frankfort.
128 line 8, for "that" read than.
150 line 16 from foot, delete more.
160 line 8, after " Lpping " add Forest.
165 line 9 from foot, for " orcadensis " read scomerensis.

235 line II from foot, for " hygrometer " ?ead hydrometer.

236 line 13 from foot, for " -45 " real -44.
25^ line 5 from foot, for " principal" read Principal.
258 line ) 8 for '• precedenee " read precedence.

268 line 7 from foot, after " Essex" insert Field Club.

269 line 23 from foot, for " Amesbresbury " read Ambresbury.
274 lines 10 and 14, for " mistakeable " read mistakable.
274 lines 12 and 15, for " remaina? " read remanie.

[The Editor is greatly indebted to the kindness of Mr. Henry Whitehead
for making the foregoing Index.]

PUBLISHED Q UA RTERL Y.
Price to Non-Members, 5s. per part, post jree.

Part I , Vol. XIV] [APRIL, 1905.

The

Essex Naturalist:

BEING THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ESSEX FIELD CLUB,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Honorary Secretary and Curator.

(Content*.

PAGE
On Natural History Museums. — An Address delivered to the Essex
Field Club at the Annual Meeting, April 8th, 1905. By F. W.
Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S., President of the Club t . .. 1

The British Woodlice. By Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S., and
CHARLES Sillem {With Twenty-Jive Plates and numerous
Illustrations ,) Commencement . . . . . . 38

[This Patt contains the first Instalment [nine) of the Twenty-five
Plates by Mr, C, Sillem, which will be ' used to illustrate the
Monograph on the British Woodlice.}

I/ise/tion — A reprint of pp. 367-8 of Vol. XIII., with errors corrected,
to be substituted in binding up the Volume.

The Authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinions contained in
their respective papers.

PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX.

Entered Stationers' Hall.] [Published July, 1905.

Editorial communications to W. Cole, " Springfield," Buckhurst Hill, Essex,
and Advertisements to Messrs. Benham and Co., Printers, Colchester.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB.

Membership of the Club. — Information respecting
Membership and the work of the Club, with forms of proposal,
will be sent on application to the Hon. Secretaries, at the Head-
quarters.

The Essex Museum of Natural History (Romford Road,
Stratford, Essex) is designed and arranged as a Local Museum
for the Count)", and as an Educational Museum for use of the
general public, students and schools. Included in the scheme
is a Lecture-room for Demonstrations and the aid of a growing
Library of some of the most useful monographs of British
Geology, Botany, and Zoology, for the use of Students in the
Museum. Curator, W. Cole. Assistant, Henry Whitehead.

The Epping Forest Museum, established by permission
of the Corporation of London in Queen Elizabeth's Hunting
Lodge, Chingford, Essex, is devoted to the elucidation of the
Natural History and Antiquities of Epping Forest, and as a
centre for Nature-study for schools and young naturalists.
Honorary Curators, W. Cole, B. G. Cole, and H. A. Cole.

The Libraries of the Club include works on Natural
History, Geology, and Antiquities, with a special department
of books, pamphlets, and MSS. relating to Epping Forest.
Honorary Librarian, Thomas W. Reader.

The Photographic and Pictorial Survey of Essex has
been founded for the preservation of photographs, pictures and
maps, etc., illustrative of the topography, antiquities, social
habits, natural history, etc., of the County. The collections will
be stored in the Essex Museum, and will be available for
reference on application to the Curator. Hon. Secretary, Victor
Taylor, Hurstleigh, Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

THE

ESSEX NATURALIST:

BEING THE

3outnaf of f0e %*m fieft> CM

FOR 1905-190 6.
(VOLUME XIV.)

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

^4/z Address delivered to the Essex Field Club at the Annual Meeting,
April 8 tit, 1905,

By F. W. RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S., President.

THE members of the Essex Field Club have met together on
this occasion under circumstances of an exceptionally
interesting character. As pointed out in the notice convening
this meeting, the Club has now completed the twenty-fifth year
of its history. Not only has it gone on for a quarter of a century
regularly holding its evening meetings and its field meetings, but
during this long period it has enjoyed the advantage of retaining
uninterruptedly the services of its Honorary Secretary and
Founder, Mr. William Cole. Moreover, for nearly the whole of
this long term he has been associated in the Secretarial work
with Mr Benjamin G. Cole. This exemplary devotion of two
brothers to the service of our Club — not to mention the valued
assistance of Mr. Henry A. Cole and of the ladies of the
family — seems to me deserving of some recognition, more sub-
stantial in character than the verbal thanks formally voted at an
Annual Meeting. But Mr. W. Cole, having the interest of the
Club ever at heart, assured us some time ago that the recognition
of the twenty-fifth Anniversary which would best please him
would be the means of completing the Epping Forest Museum.
Just as the Club itself originated with Mr. W. Cole, so this
museum owes to him its initiation ; and it is consequently but
natural that he should desire to see his ideas brought to maturity.
Whatever, therefore, may be done on some future occasion, our
immediate attention should be given to this modest suggestion
with regard to the Forest Museum ; and I think I cannot do

2 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

better than seize the opportunity afforded by the Annual Meeting
to plead very urgently on behalf of this part of the work of our
Club.

It should be our proud endeavour to make the little Museum
in the old Hunting Lodge an attractive centre of scientific
instruction to the multitudes who visit the Forest every season.
To do this is by no means an easy matter. It requires much
knowledge and great skill, a good deal of labour, and a little
money. If the Club undertakes to furnish gratuitously the
knowledge, the skill and the labour, surely it is not unreasonable
to expect the money to be forthcoming from some other source.
As a matter of fact, however, the members of our Club have
done much themselves in furnishing funds, but their donations,
though generous, are still insufficient for the work at present
contemplated. According to a recent estimate the sum of ^200
is now required to bring the arrangement of the Museum within a
reasonable approach to completeness. With this moderate sum,
it is believed that it would be possible to procure such glass-
cases and specimens as are urgently needed to make the
museum representative of the Natural History of the Forest
District. It seems absurd that a work of this importance should
be delayed through any difficulty in raising so comparatively
trifling a sum !

The Museum at Chingford may be regarded as a Monograph
of the Natural History of the Forest, illustrated with realities and
not semblances— a monograph which may be read by every
visitor more readily, yet more profitably, than any illustrated
book. Instead of turning over the pages of a volume and
admiring the plates, the visitor passes from case to case, seeing
in most instances the veritable objects instead of their mere
presentment on paper, and learning about these objects many a
useful lesson from the descriptive labels, with which they are
invariably accompanied. In a " Museum Leaflet," issued by our
Club ten years ago, Mr. W. Cole explained the purpose of the
Museum to be two-fold ; first, to " promote a love for the out-of-
door study of Natural History, etc., among the intelligent
visitors to the Forest," and secondly, " to form a store-house for
the preservation of authentic series of forest-specimens." (1) Both
these objects have been already, to a great extent, fulfilled —

(1.) A short account oj the Epping Forest Museum. E.F.C. Museum Lea/lets, No. i. 1895.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 3

fulfilled, indeed, so far and in such way as our means have
permitted.

As many of our members may not have visited the Forest
Museum recently, it may not be without use to explain what
has already been done there, and what more it is intended to do,
provided the necessary funds are forthcoming. Even in its
present incomplete state the Museum is a source of much
attraction to the crowds of excursionists in the summer months.
It appeals to many who might not otherwise be attracted to
a Museum. A visitor to the forest will casually enter the Lodge,
and have his attention arrested by the collections, whereas he
might never think of making a definite visit to a Museum in
town. And who dares to guess what far-reaching results may
perchance flow from such an accidental introduction ! It may
be true as Oliver Wendell Holmes said, that the ordinary
visitor to the British Museum " will know as much about it as the
fly that buzzes in at one window and out at another." But that,
I believe, is due mainly to the bewildering wealth of our National
Treasure-house. A small museum is likely to have in some
respects much more educational value than a large one ; and
just because our Forest Museum is not embarrassingly rich in
specimens, I venture to assess its value as altogether out of
proportion to its magnitude. That remarkable man, the late
Professor Rolleston, remarked that "a young man who is
possessed of a talent for Natural Science and Physical Inquiry
generally, may have the knowledge of this predisposition made
known to himself and to others, for the first time, by his
introduction to a well-arranged Local Museum. " (2) Is it
unreasonable to hope that some bright spirit — perhaps some
' potential Darwin ' — may date his inspiration from a casual visit
to that little Museum in the Forest ?

Obviously the first thing that claims attention in a forest
is its timber ; and hence a Forest Museum must contain, first
and foremost, illustrations of the Forest Trees. Of the throngs of
Londoners who visit Epping Forest, how small a proportion
•could name the common trees, even when clad in all their livery of
green ! I heard of a Cockney who, failing to distinguish one
•tree from another, grouped the oak, the beech, the eim, and a

(2) Address to the Biological Section of the British Association at Liverpool, 1870.

Report, p. 93.

4 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

number of others together under the vague name of " the
ordinary tree." r3) It is not contended for a moment that a man
will be a better citizen because he calls an oak Quercus, and a
beech Fagus ; but it is undoubtedly true that the man who marks
the essential points of difference between one tree and another —
who can distinguish, say, the hornbeam from the beech or the
elm — is a man who exercises his faculties of observation, and to
that extent is likely to become a better workman and a more
intelligent member of Society.

Ignorance of the forest trees may readily be overcome by a
little study of the specimens, which are already shewn in the
museum, mounted in glass-cases affixed to the wall on the great
staircase and on the landings. Here the visitor finds preserved
specimens of the foliage and the fruit, with sections of the wood,
and photographs of the trees shewing their characteristic habit ;
whilst in some cases, the diseases of the trees have been
illustrated by Mr. Paulson.

The Herbaceous Flowering Plants of the forest are illustrated
during the season by specimens of cut flowers, duly labelled — a
source of never-failing interest to the procession of young people
who pass through the rooms at holiday time. The frequent
change of fresh flowers involves, however, much work ; and it
seems to me desirable that some of our members living near the
Museum should offer to assist the Curator in this respect. Botany
is a subject much cultivated by many ladies, and it would surely
be an interesting occupation for ladies of leisure to collect the
plants and label them, giving with the name a brief note which
might include, if nothing else, scraps of folk-lore, such as may
readily be found in popular works on wild flowers. Such
information, neatly expressed, makes very pleasant reading, and
would render the plants attractive even to those who have no-
aspiration to become botanists. "Of the many thousands who
visit us on every sunny day in summer," says Mr. E. N. Buxton,
" few return without securing some floral trophy, which it has
given them infinite pleasure to gather. " (4) Would it not be well that
they should carry off with their trophy some interesting scraps of
information, which will abide long after the flowers themselves
shall have perished !

(3) Landscape Geology. By Hugh Miller, 1891. p. 38.

(4) Epping Forest. By Edward North Buxton, Verderer. London, 1885., p. 114.

©N NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 5

Dried plants are not readily exhibited, and if exhibited are
not generally attractive, It is true they may be mounted in
frames and glazed, but they require much space for their display
upon the wall. A preferable mode is to hinge the glazed frames
to an upright standard, so that they be made partially to revolve.
The proper course, however, is to preserve the specimens in an
herbarium, and to consult them as books may be consulted in a
library.

Fortunately our Club possesses a good collection of dried
plants, preserved in eight cabinets, now in the Stratford Museum.
This herbarium includes the important donation of specimens
due some years ago to the generosity of Mr. J. C. Shenstone ; it
contains also the late Mr. Sewell's collection, presented by his
widow ; Mr. E. J. Powell's herbarium, and Dr. Varenne's
collection of Cryptogams. I understand from Mr. W. Cole that
he is about to arrange these herbaria in two series —the one a
general collection of British plants for the use of the student ;
the other limited absolutely to the Flora of Essex. (5) Our local
herbarium will be invaluable to future botanists, inasmuch
as we possess representatives of plants from numerous localities
in Essex now built over or otherwise lost to science.

A large number of our Essex specimens have been obtained
from the Forest district, but it hardly seems desirable to remove
these to the Forest Museum, inasmuch as there they could
scarcely be exhibited to advantage. Although an herbarium is
clearly of the highest value to the student of systematic botany,
it is hardly a suitable object for public exhibition. Indeed Prof.
Weiss, of Manchester — a very high authority — has said " I regard
the Herbarium as not forming part of a Museum. " (6) Probably
the ordinary visitor would find good coloured plates of the
flowers of the Forest more serviceable than dried specimens ; for
these have generally lost to a large extent their colour and even
their shape, so that the tyro would be more likely to identify
his specimen from a well-executed coloured plate than from the
dried plant.

It is said, I believe, that among English counties Essex
stands second only to Herefordshire in the interest of its Fungi,

(5) On the arrangement ot dried plants see a paper by Mr. E. M. Holmes, F.L.S., on
"The Arrangement of Heroaria." Report of Museums Association, Sheffield, 1899, p. 63.

(6) " The -Organization of a Botanical Museum." By F. E. Weiss. Rep. Mus. Assoc,
Manchester, 1892, p. 25.

O ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

Our Club indeed has became rather famous for its annual'
Fungus Forays in the Forest. Some of the common fungi of
Epping Forest are so conspicuous as to attract general
attention, and it should always be the object of our Museum to
enable a student — or even a chance visitor — to identify any
natural object which he may find in the course of a Forest
ramble. In the Museum at Chingford there is a good collection
of preserved specimens of the local fungi, accompanied by
coloured drawings, and well displayed in a series of wall-cases.
Some of the specimens, I believe, were prepared by that skilful
naturalist, the late Mr. English, of Epping. Nor should we
omit to notice the set of original drawings of flowerless plants,
executed specially for the Museum by our veteran friend, Dr. M.
C. Cooke. This series of large drawings, framed and glazed, is
mounted on screens in the Upper Room of the Museum, where it
offers in an attractive form much information to the visitor.

So far as the zoology of Epping Forest is concerned, popular
interest seems to centre in the Insects — if, at least, we may judge
from the large number of visitors who carry butterfly-nets and
other entomological gear. The Curator, whom we all know tO'
be an enthusiastic entomologist himself, has done well to
minister to their tastes by a remarkably fine display in the Oak
Room Here the instructive specimens illustrating the life-
history of the Forest butterflies and moths, with their food-
plants, is especially noteworthy. As most insects suffer
deterioration by the action of light, they are here preserved in
flat glass-cases, which are provided with covers that may be freely
opened by the public, whilst the covers themselves are glazed
and serve for the display of a most attractive series of coloured
plates of insects, taken, I believe, from Curtis's Entomology,
The effect of this admirable method of utilizing the covers of the
cases contrasts very favourably with the ordinary practice of
screening the specimens from light by means of moveable covers
of American cloth, or other opaque material — a method which
is rather unsightly and decidedly uninstructive.

With regard to the Mollusc a, reference should be made to the
fine collection of land and fresh- water shells from the woods and
lanes, the ponds and streams, of the Forest District, which has
been on loan for many years by the courtesy of Mr. Walter
Crouch, by whom they were collected and to whom the Museum.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 7

has so often been in other ways greatly indebted. The
educational value of this collection is much increased by Mr.
Crouch's neat drawings of the living molluscs, shewing their
relation to the shells. I understand that a large collection of Forest
species is in course of preparation, and as this is the property of
the Club it will be a permanent exhibit. It is well to note, too,
that some of the living mollusca will be on view in the aquaria
in the museum, and I feel sure these will prove a constant
source of interest and instruction to the visitors. The

fascination of living things makes an aquarium one of the most
popular features in any Museum, and amply repays the trouble
which it necessarily involves.

It is not so easy to represent the Vertebrata of the Forest in
our small Museum as it is to illustrate the invertebrate fauna.
There is, however, in the Banqueting Hall a collection of Birds'
Eggs (founded on a collection presented by Mr. G. E. Vaughan),
in glass-topped boxes ; and as many eggs suffer by direct
exposure to light, they are protected, like the insects, by covers
to the table-cases in which they are preserved. These glazed
covers are utilized by the display of a charming series of coloured
plates and reproductions of photographs, illustrating the
residents, migrants and visitors to the forest, with their nests.
The effect of thus appropriating what would otherwise be bare
covers is admirable ; but let it not be forgotten that the judicious
selection, the neat mounting, and the careful labelling of such a
series of plates, must have required the expenditure of much
time and thought. It is evident that some sympathetic hand
must have been busy with this work, and I think I trace that of
Mr. Henry Cole.

At present there is no collection of stuffed birds in the
Museum, but it is proposed, as soon as sufficient funds are in
hand, to place in the centre of the Banqueting Room a pedestal
case, divided into four compartments, each containing a small
collection of the Birds of the Forest, in association with their
natural surroundings. What species are to be represented I
know not ; perhaps it is not yet decided. But in view of the
great interest of the Heronry in Wanstead Park, I should think
that a group of herons, with the nest, would be at once
appropriate, attractive and instructive. Fortunately the Club
has, in its new president, a distinguished ornithologist, under

8 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

whose guidance we may be sure that the birds will receive due
attention. It is also intended, our purse permitting, to erect a
case in the middle of the Oak Room, on the lower floor, with a
collection of the small Mammals of _ the Forest, showing their
natural environment. At present the Forest mammals are
represented only by a few examples of heads and antlers of the
fallow deer, the red deer, and the roe deer — with one stuffed
specimen of the forest breed of fallow deer.

In the picturesque mounting of natural objects, we cannot
hope to imitate the splendid groups in the British Museum
(Natural History), or even to vie with those of the large Pro-
vincial Museums, such as the fine pictorial groups by Mr.
Montagu Browne, at Leicester. But even in a small way, we
may be able to invest our stuffed birds and mammals with a touch
of living interest. Instead of mounting them in the time-
honoured fashion on polished pedestals of wood, we may at least
encircle them with something suggestive of their forest-sur-
roundings. The realistic adjuncts of a " habitat group " appeal
especially to the young visitor ; and a young visitor is always
worth attracting.

Although the pictorial mounting of natural history objects has
been brought promimently forward in recent years, it is b)' no means
a new thing in Museums. In the early years of the last century,
there existed at the Egyptian Hall, in Piccadilly, in connection
with Bullock's famous Museum, an exhibition called the
Pantherion. The conception was much too ambitious, since it
aimed at representing, as far as possible, the whole of the
mammalia, but its merit and novelty lay in the attempt to convey,
in the words of its projector, " a more perfect idea of their haunts
and mode of life than has hitherto been done." (7)

By means of a tropical scene, with models of appropriate
vegetation, such creatures as the lion, the elephant, the rhinoceros,
and the giraffe were "exhibited as ranging in their native wilds and
forest." With regard to our unambitious Museum at Chingford,
it seems in the highest degree desirable that we should be able
to set up without further delay a few groups of local birds and
mammals, under conditions suggestive of a glimpse of wild
nature in Epping Forest. Nature-study is making us now-a-days

(7) A Companion to the London Museum and Pantherion. By William Bullock,
London. 1816 (17th Ed.) p. 97.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 9

rather impatient of artificiality, and indeed the naturalistic idea
is even being extended from the Museum to the Menagerie. Just
as people are not satisfied to-day with seeing in our glass cases
stuffed birds perched in rows on monotonous stands of turned
wood, so they are getting rather tired of seeing wild animals
pent up in rows of cages ; and Mr. Hagenback is said to have
in view a scheme which will enable him in the near future to
exhibit the animals under conditions apparently approaching to
some extent those of nature.

At the present time there is displayed in the Upper Room of
the Forest Museum a small collection of Fossil Vertebvata,
representing the ancient fauna of the district ; but the question
is under consideration, whether it would not be expedient to
remove these objects to Stratford, and devote the space at
Chingford, which is but very limited, to illustrations of the fauna
and flora of the Forest as they exist to-day.

Whilst the Chingford Museum makes natural history its
most prominent feature, it has always sought — and quite
legitimately— to illustrate the early archaeology of the district,
•especially the Prehistoric ages. Hence we find in the Banqueting
Hall the interesting collection of relics which were dug up
from the two Forest camps — the camp at Amesbury Banks
explored by our Club in 1881, and Loughton, or Cowper's
Camp, examined in the following year, both probably of British
origin. Then again the same room contains the valuable group
of antiquities obtained by Mr. Chalkley Gould in the course of
his exploration of the Romano-British settlement at Chigwell,
and so well described in his Museum Handbook/ 8 '

The mention of antiquarian relics raises a suggestion which,
to some, may appear rather startling. Will the day ever come
when it will be possible to divorce these relics from the natural
history objects with which they are now associated, so that the
works of art may be shewn in one building and the works of
nature in another? It is true that Sir Thomas Browne, that
grand old East Anglian worthy, quaintly says that " All things
are artificial, for nature is the art of God." But taking words as
common-place people like ourselves use them, there seems
ample justification for separating, under certain conditions, the

(8) " Notes upon the Romano-British Settlement at Chigwell, Essex." By I. Chalkley
Gould, Essex Field Club Museum Handbooks, No. 2, 187.

IO ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

artificial from the natural, and recognizing two groups of
objects appealing to two types of visitor, not always
in sympathy with each other's tastes.

Now that the Forest Museum, after costing so much thought,
labour and money, is approaching within moderate distance of
completion — so far at least as is contemplated by our modest
scheme— it seems rather ungracious, not to say ungrateful, to
raise any doubt as to the fitness of the present building for
the purposes of a Natural History Museum. And yet such a
doubt can hardly be repressed by any unprejudiced visitor. No
one will deny that the building is much too small, and that the
illumination in parts is sadly defective. Even with the addition
of the new glass cases suggested in our scheme, there will be
provision for only a very inadequate representation of the
fauna and flora of the Forest. Mr. E. N. Buxton has very
wisely raised his voice against over-crowding the Rooms. No
one but a naturalist has any notion of the prodigality of life
in the Forest district, and even the naturalist has probably
but very imperfect ideas on such a subject. It is related that a
certain professor once projected the formation of a Museum
to be confined to the natural objects collected in the Gardens of
Lincoln's Inn ; but after a while he found himself compelled
to abandon his scheme in consequence of the great number and
variety of objects which the locality yielded. (9) If Lincoln's Inn
Fields are so rich, what must the Forest be ? The district which
we desire to illustrate in the Museum is indeed much too prolific
to be adequately represented in our present restricted quarters.

Nor is the illumination everywhere sufficient, except on very
bright days, to enable the visitor to inspect the specimens with
satisfaction. It is true that many natural objects suffer from
exposure to light, but the Curator can always shut out light, or
moderate it, by means of blinds, whilst he can hardly ever
admit more natural light than the architect has permitted. It is
therefore, in my opinion, a matter of prime importance that
every Museum should be so constructed as to allow a free
flood of light into the exhibition galleries. Some people possibly
may think otherwise, and prefer a dull and dreary place. One
of the most curious remarks I ever met with in connection

(9) Hints on the Formation of Local Museums. By the Treasurer of the Wimbledon
Museum Committee, London, 1863, p. 20.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. II

witli Museums was that of a writer who, otherwise uttering
much common sense, held that " the drowsy appearance
of a Museum peculiarly adapts it to the requirements of
students. " (1 °'

If I might be bold enough to throw out a hint as to what
I should like to see in the Forest Museum of the future, I would
venture to say that in my opinion the present building, with
its interesting associations, should be used as a small antiquarian
Museum and that the Natural History collections should be
removed to a neighbouring building to be specially erected tor
their reception — a building which may be severely simple in
architecture, but which shall be spacious and light.

The exhibits at present at Chingford may be regarded, for
convenience, as falling into two groups — one scientific, the other
archaeological; though I do not for a moment intend to suggest
by this conventional arrangement that archaeology is not to be
treated on scientific principles. The display of scientific objects
in an ancient building always strikes me as rather incongruous,
whereas objects of archaeological interest readily harmonize with
their antique surroundings. If I may dare to introduce just one
word of criticism respecting another museum in Essex, I would
refer to that at Colchester. There the archaeological treasures,
which everyone knows are of surpassing interest and inestimable
value, including the famous Joslin and Jarmin collections, may
not be considered altogether out of keeping with the venerable
castle in which they are housed, but the small Natural History
collection in the same building seems to me quite out of place in
such an edifice.

Queen Elizabeth's Hunting Lodge, the present home of the
Epping Forest Museum, is an example of early Tudor archi-
tecture, which itself forms a fine specimen for an " Open Air
Museum." By the restoration of this building, the Corporation
of the City of London has earned the gratitude of every lover of
antiquity. It seems to me that the ideal way of utilising the old
building would be to furnish it with appropriate objects of
corresponding age, so that the whole might form a grand historical
object-lesson. But as such an ideal is never likely to be
reached, the next best thing is to use the building for the

(10) Principles which should govern the classification and arrangement of Public
Museums. By Henrie O'Hara. Dublin : 1S62, p. 3.

12 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

exhibition of a wider archaeological collection of local character.
The fittings should harmonize with the antique aspect of the
rooms, and the contents of the cases should carry the visitor
back, in imagination, to the distant past. All the antiquarian
objects now on exhibition might remain in their present home — the
relics from the Camps and the Chigwell Settlement, the stone
and bronze implements, the old fire-producing appliances, the
tapestries, the pictures, and the engravings of local interest. But
all the natural history objects should, in my opinion, be trans-
ferred to new quarters — spacious, airy, and bright — where they
would be more attractive and of greater educative value than in
their present rather unsuitable location.

That the Forest Museum, even in its present state, is widely
appreciated, let the thousands who throng it every season testify.
But notwithstanding the crowds which pass through the rooms,
a large proportion being children, scarce a single instance is
known in which any damage has been wilfully done. This is the
more remarkable, considering what a large surface of glass is
exposed ; moreover, there are many specimens under glass shades,
accessible on shelves in the room, yet it is the rarest thing for
these or the small glass vivaria to get injured.

To the schools which so often visit the Forest the museum is
a source not only of great attraction, but in many cases of
permanent profit. Children are quick to observe and ready to
remember, full of curiosity and usually interested in a remarkable
degree in living things, such as will be seen in the aquaria and
vivaria in the museum, So again, to the young naturalist visiting
the Forest, this museum is a feature of exceptional interest, for
here he may hope to identify the spoils which he has secured in
his rambles. Special attention should therefore be given to the
exhibition of common things. The resorts of the London
naturalist are unfortunately but few, and are getting fewer every
year, but we rejoice that the Forest, which is one of the most
favoured haunts, is preserved for ever from the defilement of
bricks and mortar. May it have eventually a museum which
shall be worthy of its reputation !

Five years after the Epping Forest Museum had been opened
another Museum under the care of our Club, of wider scope than
that at Chingford, inasmuch as it represents the whole county of
Essex, was formally opened at Stratford by the Countess of

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 1 3.

Warwick. 11 As the history of this Museum has been written by
Mr. W. Cole in one of our little " Handbooks " I am relieved
of the necessity of entering into historical details. 12 It is not
without interest, however, on the occasion of this— our twenty-
fifth — annual meeting, to recall the fact that the idea of forming a
museum was entertained by those who founded the Club, and
was distinctly explained by our first President, Prof. Meldola, in
his inaugural address. There is probably no member
of our Club ignorant of the way in which that idea, though
long in abeyance, was ultimately carried out through the
enlightened policy of the Corporation of West Ham, associated
with the munificence of Mr. Passmore Edwards.

On entering the Passmore Edwards Museum, anyone familiar
with the details of museum work will be struck with the
admirable way in which modern ideas have been carried out. It
is not a museum run on old lines, like many of those which are
themselves qualified to be preserved in a larger museum as
interesting, but rather melancholy, records of obsolete science.
True it is but a small museum, yet it is arranged in harmony
with the state of knowledge in the twentieth century. In a
discussion on " The Museum Question " a few years ago in
Liverpool, Prof. Herdman, one of our most distinguished
naturalists, condemned the usual methods of exhibiting natural
history objects as suggestive of the days of Linnaeus, rather than
of present day biology. 13 At Stratford, however, he would find, I
venture to think, little or nothing of an antiquated character.
Mr. Cole has taken care that the biological clock should not be
put back to the time of Linnaeus. Let the visitor turn to the
left as he enters the building, and he finds himself at once in a
recess surrounded by cases which contain beautiful illustrations
of the leading Principles of Bionomics. Here are several well-
chosen series of specimens, chiefly insects, illustrating such
subjects as protective and aggressive resemblance for conceal-
ment by colour and form ; protection by warning colours ;
mimicry, or imitation of protected animals ; and dimorphism or
differences relating to season and sex. In a yet more prominent
position in the body of the hall is a wall-case devoted to specimens,

11 Essex Naturalist, Vol. xi. (1901), p. 319.

12 The Essex Museum of Natural History. By W. Cole, F.L.S., Museum Handbook, No„
3, 1900.

13 " The Museum Question." Report of Liverpool Geological Society, Vol. ix. (1901),.
p. xxvii.

74 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

principally casts, illustrating the famous case of the Ancestry of
the Horse.

To all these collections which bear on natural evolution great
value is imparted by the long descriptive labels, which have
been drawn up by Mr. W. Cole. Not only here but all over the
museum there are large labels and tablets, admirably composed,
which make the collections self-interpreting, and offer to the
visitor, who cares to read them, an excellent epitome of informa-
tion on many branches of natural history. It is probable that
by the casual visitor as he hurries through the museum they are
unread and unheeded. Even the student who lingers over them
may have but a faint notion of the labour involved in their
composition. To put a scientific statement concisely yet clearly
and in popular language is a task, the difficulty of which is
known only to those who have had to face it. The labels in our
museum are neat and legible, being either printed or type-
written, whilst they appeal by their simplicity of expression to
that unscientific individual, our familiar friend, who passes now-
adays as the " man in the street." An American has said that
our labels ought to be clear enough to " attract the newsboy and
the boot-black." u I hardly think our critic would find much
fault in this respect at Stratford.

The prime object of the Essex Museum is, of course, to
illustrate the natural history of the county. The greater
part of the Invertebrata are represented by a large and
valuable collection of shells, Crustacea, insects and other
objects which are, or will be, preserved in two mahogany
cabinets that have recently been placed in the museum. These
beautiful cabinets contain upwards of ioo glass-topped drawers,
each having a stop at the back so that it may be partially drawn
out by the visitor, and its contents inspected without fear of
damage. In this way the specimens will be preserved from
deterioration by exposure to light, and yet remain freely accessible
to the public.

Notwithstanding the efforts of the curator there are still
many gaps in the local collection, and members of the Essex
Field Club may be reminded that they have it in their power to
render the museum very material aid by contributing from the
spoils which they collect. Addressing the members of the

14 Mr. Karlan J. Smith on " Popular Museum Exhibits." Museums Association Report
of Oxford Meeting. 1897. p. 65.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 15

Woolhope and Cotteswold Clubs many years ago, the late Prof.
John Phillips said, " I would urge all persons belonging to field
clubs, not selfishly to retain the specimens they gather, but to
deposit them where they may be of use to their fellow-
explorers." u Such advice may be repeated with advantage
to-day. Most members would, no doubt, be willing, if solicited,
to share their captures with the museum, but they are probably
not aware that such objects would be valued. Good examples
of common things systematically collected are, however, much
needed in many museums. It is a great encouragement to a
young collector, who is not likely to secure rarities, to come to
this museum and be able to identify the common species which
he has collected.

By preserving the bulk of the local collection in cabinets
much space is gained in the exposed table-cases for the exhibition
of more attractive specimens not of local origin. While the
prime function of the Museum is to illustrate the natural history
of Essex, it has always been very properly regarded as a
desirable object of the Club to render the collection of wide and
even general educational value. Mr. W. Cole, in a suggestive
paper, read seven years ago before the South-Eastern Union of
Scientific Societies, 15 emphasized this idea, and advocated the
formation, even in a small local museum, of what is often called
a " type or index collection." As long as a student limits his
studies to the products of a special area, he finds himself unable,
in consequence of the serious gaps in every local collection, to
take a general and systematic view of any organic group. My
friend, Mr. H. M. Platnauer, the accomplished curator for so
many years of the York Museum, has aptly remarked that
" Teaching from a local collection was like teaching from a text-
book from which whole chapters and many pages have been
torn." 16 A visitor would form, in truth, but a poor idea of the
group of the marine mollusca, for example, if he limited his
attention to the shells of the Essex coast ; but by the exhibition
of a few typical shells from tropical seas, he gets a glimpse of the
beauty and wealth of nature's resources in this department.
Hence the table-cases in the Stratford Museum contain an

14" On the Geology of the Malvern Hills."
15 "The Objects and Methods of a Local Museum." Trans. South-Eastern Union Scicn.
Soc. for 1897, p. 17.

16 The Museums Journal, vol. ii. (1902), p. 54.

l6 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

attractive and instructive collection of mollusca, Crustacea, and
insects from all parts of the world.

The very effective manner in which this collection is
displayed ought not to pass unnoticed. The molluscan shells, for
instance, are placed on cotton w T ool in trays, whilst the crust-
aceans are mounted on a sand-like floor ; nothing, too, can be
more clear and striking than the labelling — white letters being
used on a black ground with a vermilion border. Let it not be
thought that such details are too trivial for mention at a
scientific meeting ; on the contrary they are matters of the first
moment in rendering the collection attractive to visitors ; and it
is neglect of such small matters that has done much to bring
museums into ill repute.

Whilst referring to the excellent manner in which the speci-
mens throughout the Museum are mounted, I should ill discharge
my duty if I made no mention of the labours of Mr. Whitehead,
Mr. Cole's assistant, to whose skill and taste in displaying the
specimens the Museum owes much of its attractiveness ; nor
should I omit reference to his wide range of knowledge and
scientific enthusiasm, which render his services of such great
value to the Institution.

Part of the Invertebrate Collection is exhibited on the walls
of the staircase leading from the ground floor of the Museum to
the Gallery. Here will be found representatives of the great
groups of Ccelenteiata, Povifera, Echinodevmata and Vermes, mostly
preserved in spirit. Even the fugacious jelly-fish from Southend
is represented here. Nothing can be more effective than the
manner in which the soft organisms are mounted on sheets of
glass, with a suitable dark background, in rectangular glass jars.
In fact, the use of the parallel-sided jar instead of a cylinder, and
the employment of formalin as a preservative agent, have been
the means, in recent years, of displaying such objects in a manner
which contrasts most favourably with the unsatisfactory methods
of exhibiting " spirit specimens " in old-fashioned museums.

The lower Vertebrata are represented by an excellent collection
of local Fishes, beautifully arranged in the alcove on the right
hand of the visitor as he enters the museum. Here are
numerous specimens, some stuffed and others preserved in spirit,
illustrating the fish-fauna, not only of the freshwaters of Essex,
but also of the shallow part of the North Sea which washes the

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. IJ

coast of our county. A chart shows the physical conditions of
the North Sea, whilst a large series of coloured plates, from
Couch's work, serves further to illustrate the local ichthyology.
Let the anglers in the Essex rivers never forget that certain
freshwater fishes are still wanted to complete the collection ; and,
I believe, that some of the less common marine species are also
needed.

In a glass case on the left of the entrance an attempt is made
to illustrate the Amphibians and Reptiles of Essex. A fairly com-
plete set of the Mammals of Essex, with skulls and skeletons of
many species, is at present placed in the Small Hall, near the
Curator's Room. The Birds of Essex are represented by a series
of stuffed specimens in the glass cases which run round the walls
of the museum, whilst these birds are associated in many cases
with their nests and eggs, forming groups which offer an
interesting insight into local bird-life. Many of the ornithological
specimens are due to the generosity of Dr. Laver, of Colchester,
who has also presented valuable collections of local lepidoptera
and land and fresh-water shells.

It is the intention of the Curator to collect a series of speci-
mens of local interest, in illustration of Economic Zoology,
including especially the Mollusca and Crustacea which come into
London from the estuary of the Thames and other parts of the
Essex coast. Such a collection would do much to excite an
interest in familiar objects, and might be useful as serving to
show the visitor that science does not stand aloof from the
incidents of daily life.

In the Small Hall, to which reference has been made above,
there is now exhibited a small collection of Prehistoric and other
Antiquities, including many objects of local interest, especially the
relics from the Dene-holes, the Red Hills, and the settlement at
Braintree. Further reference to these is rendered unnecessary,
however, by the excellent descriptions in the little handbook by
Mr. F. W. Reader. 17 Although scarcely coming within the scope
of a museum mainly devoted to natural history, I should like to
see our museum possess a Technological Department, in which the
industries of Essex should be illustrated, especially those which
are extinct or tending to extinction.

17 A Handbook to the Collection of Prehistoric Objects in the Essex Museum of Natural
History. By F. W. Reader. b

10 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

A part only of the Gallery of the museum is at present given
up to the natural history collections, but as these are rapidly
increasing it is hoped that additional space may be secured in
this section of the building, where the illumination by means of a
direct top-light is well adapted for the display of objects requiring
close inspection. The Botanical collection is located in the gallery.
During the season fresh cut flowers are here exhibited week by
week, as at the Forest Museum ; and the visitor is introduced to
them by means of tablets adorned with charming little coloured
sketches by Mr. Henry Cole. Here, too, are the Minevalogical
and Petvological collections in course of arrangement by the skilful
hands of Mr. Thomas W. Reader ; and here, likewise, is the
collection of Fossils — a collection containing many choice speci-
mens, due chiefly to the generosity of Dr. Horace T. Brown,
Mr. W. H. Dalton, and Mr. Carvalho. As an introduction to
this section of the museum there is a most instructive series of
specimens illustrating the phenomena of fossilization, and intended
to answer the question which is asked by a bold tablet at the
head of the case : " What is a fossil ?"

In dealing with fossils a Curator is at once faced with the
vexed question whether they should be arranged independently
as a palseontological collection, or be associated with the zoo-
logical and botanical specimens as one series — the extinct and
the extant forms taking their place in juxtaposition. A fossil
may in fact be viewed in two aspects: as a " medal of creation "
it has an obverse and a reverse. The biologist looks at one side,
the geologist at the other. To the biologist the fossil is a link
in the chain of life, connected with other links on its two sides —
a unit in a long organic concatenation related to certain
antecedents and to certain successors. But the geologist, whilst
fully appreciating this philosophical aspect, views the fossil as
an index to a certain set of strata, as a representative of life at a
particular period of the earth's history.

After all, this question, whether a Curator should arrange his
fossils on the biological or on the geological system, seems rather
like the old question, " Whether the tailor should make coats or
trousers." To which the very obvious retort was, " Why not
make both ?" If the museum is extensive enough, there can
surely be no valid reason why the two systems should not be
followed. The Curator, realizing this, will do his best to satisfy
at once the student of Life and the student of Time.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 19

Even in the Essex Museum, though far from being large, an
attempt has been made in a small way to carry out this dual
scheme. A case stands, for example, in the Hall, containing
.both living and fossil forms of the Cephalopoda. Several fossil
Nautili are here placed by side of the recent Pearly Nautilus;
and some typical Ammonites are to be found close by ; whilst
a group of Belemnites keeps company with spirit preparations of
the calamaries and the cuttle-fishes of the Essex coast. In the
Gallery, again, will be found a very instructive case of certain
extinct animals associated with their living representatives.

But whilst these series are arranged to illustrate in some
measure the biological side of Palaeontology, the bulk of the fossils
will be found arranged, as is usual elsewhere, on a chronological
system. By disposing them in stratigraphical sequence, the
student gets a notion of the fauna and to some extent of
the flora at successive periods of geological history. To Mr. W.
H. Dalton the Club is much indebted for having expended
a great deal of labour on the arrangement of the Fossils, and
especially for writing a Handbook 18 descriptive of the Pliocene
fossils which have rendered East Anglia geologically famous,
and of which, notwithstanding the ravishes of denudation to
which Mr. Spiller has lately called attention, Essex can still
boast a characteristic example in those shelly sands of Walton-
on-the-Naze, which are believed to represent the oldest part
of the Red Crag.

From this rapid survey of the contents of the Essex Museum
and their arrangement, it will be seen how admirably the
objects for which the Museum was originally organized have
been so far carried out. The division into a Local and a General
Collection is well defined. This division is in harmony with the
views of most of those who have given thought to the Museum
question. Mr. John Hopkinson, for instance, in suggesting
to the Hertfordshire Natural History Society many years ago
a scheme for the formation of a County Museum, insisted on the
importance of dividing every Provincial Museum into two
parts — one representative of a definite district, generally a
county, and the other an educational department with a typical
collection chiefly for the purpose of teaching. 19

18 A brief sketch of the Crag Formation of East Anglia. By W. H. Dalton, F.G.S.
Essex Field Club, Museum Handbooks, No. 4, 1900.

19 " The Formation and Arrangement of Provincial Museums." Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist.
Soc, Vol. i. (1881), p. 193.

20 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

The late Sir Wm. Flower, whose life was devoted to the
highest type of museum work, pointed out, in his famous British
Association address, that a museum should have a two-fold
object — Research and Instruction. 20 The part devoted to
research would be consulted only by those favoured few who had
ability and opportunity for enlarging the bounds of knowledge,
and consequently this portion need not be exhibited, but should
be reserved for secluded study by the specialist. Such an
arrangement is, perhaps, hardly applicable to a small museum'
like ours at Stratford ; yet even there we are following, to some
extent, the lines indicated, inasmuch as specimens prominently
displayed to the public are such as should attract the general
visitor, whilst the local collection for consultation by the serious
student is preserved in cabinets, though those are accessible to alU

My friend, Dr. Bather, in a valuable address delivered a
short time ago to the Museums Association at Aberdeen, took a
wider view of museum organisation, and held that a typical
museum has three functions — Investigation, Instruction and
Inspiration.* 21 As an aid to investigation the Museum is con-
sulted by the specialist who is occupied in original research ; as a
means of instruction it is used by the ordinary student, the
amateur and the collector ; as an aid to inspiration it appeals to
the lay public, the rank outsider, the man in the street. Our
Essex Museum, though appealing to the ordinary student, is
largely concerned with the last of these functions — it seeks to
attract and elevate the general public of West Ham. Our
purpose, to borrow Dr. Bather's words, is " not to turn every
member of the gaping crowd into a doctor of science, but to
awaken their imagination and interest, and to give to a street-
bred folk some feeling for the nature it has well-nigh forgotten.
The love of nature is the essential thing ; the questioning of her
will follow."

It may, perhaps, be said that theoretically we need three
museums, one for each type of visitor — the specialist, the student
and the stranger. The first and the second type of museum may
be united, so may the second and third, but the first and third
types are generally as little disposed to union as oil and water.

20 Rep. Brit. Assoc. Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1889, reprinted in Essays on Museums.
London : 1898, p. 1.

21 Rep. Mus. Assoc. Aberdeen meeting, 1903. See also his paper on " The Functions,
of Museums," in the Popular Science Monthly, Jan., 1904, p. 210.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 21

All we can hope to do in our small museum is to appeal to the
student and the stranger ; whilst the specialist, bent on original
research, will naturally turn to more important institutions,
generally to the British Museum.

Considering the magnitude and importance of our National
Museum — the pride of British science — it seems amazing that
its existence goes no further back than some hundred and fifty
years. It was first opened to the public at Montague House, on
January 15th, 1759, only, however, for three hours a day ; and
indeed for long afterwards the admission was restricted by
complicated regulations, which were no doubt considered
necessary at the time but which seem to us, looking back from these
days of freedom, to have been of a most vexatious character. 22

The original nucleus of the British museum, around which
the magnificent national collections have aggregated in the
course of a century and a half, was the private museum of Sir
Hans Sloane. Sloane — the intimate friend of Boyle and Ray,
and the immediate successor of Newton in the Presidential chair
of the Royal Society — had not only made a great collection him-
self, begun in early life during his sojourn in the West Indies,
but he succeeded in 1701 to the valuable collections of his friend
William Courteen. In 1684, Courteen, who had lived much on
the continent, opened a suite of rooms in the Temple, and there
arranged his collections, on which he had spent the greater part
of his fortune, and which he valued at £"50,000. Yet the sum
paid by the nation in 1753 for the Sloane museum at Chelsea,
including Courteen's specimens, was but £"20,000 — a sum which,
according to a codicil to Sloane's will, was not a quarter of their
intrinsic value. The Act of Parliament which was passed for the
purchase of the Sloane collection and the Harleian manuscripts
was also directed to " providing one general repository for the
better reception and more convenient use for the said collection.''
Such was the orgin of the British museum. It is this repository
which has gradually expanded into the splendid institutions at
Bloomsbury and South Kensington.

22 Walter Harrison in his "History" gives the following description of the mode of
gaining admittance to the Museum : —

" If any number, not exceeding fifteen, are inclined to see^it, they must send a list of their
christian and surnames, with their place of abode, to the porter's lodge, in order to their being
entered in the book ; in a few days the respective tickets will be made out, specifying the day
and hour when they are to come ; which, on being sent for, will be delivered. The fewer
names there are on the list, the sooner the company will gain admittance."

22 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

Previously to the foundation of the British museum, the great
museum in London was that of the Royal Society. The
formation of a Museum has generally been considered to be
legitimately included in the work of any society devoted to the
advancement of science; and the Essex Field Club has con-
sequently been simply a humble follower in this direction.
Bishop Sprat, in describing the early doings of the founders of
the Royal Society after the Oxford Meetings were broken up and
they had settled in London, tells us that : —

" As soon as they were reduc'd into a Fix\i Assembly, one of the Principal.
Intentions they propos'd to accomplish, was a General Collection of all the
Effects of Arts, and the Common, or Monstrous Works of Nature. This they at
first began by the casual Presents, which eithei Strangers, or any of their own
Member* bestow'd upon them. And in short time it has increas'd so fast, by a
contribution from all Parts, and chiefly by the bounty of Mr. Colwal, that they
have already drawn together into one Room, the greatest part of all the several
kinds of things, that are scatter'd throughout the Universe (!). The Keeping,
and Ranging of these into order, is committed to Mr. Hook, who had also the
honour of being made the first Curator of the Royal Society by election." 23

Writing to Mr. Boyle on February 3, 1666, Hooke, the
Secretary of the Royal Society, says " I am now making a
collection of natural rarities, and hope within a short time to get
as good as any that have yet been made in any part of the
World." About this time, the Council resolved iS that the
donation of ^"100. presented by Mr. Colwall, should be expended
in purchasing the collection of rarities formerly belonging to
Mr. Hubbard."

Dr. David Murray in his recently published work on
museums, 23 * suggests with much plausibility that this "Mr..
Hubbard" was really Robert Hubert alias Forges, who is known
to have had a large collection of rarities, which he exhibited
publicly in 1664 at " the place called the Musick House, at the
Miter near the west end of St. Paul's Church." Of this
collection a catalogue exists, and many of the objects are

2-$The History of the Royal Society of London, for the improving of Natural Knowledge.
By Tho. Sprat. D.U., Lord Bishop of Rochester. London: 2nd ed. 1702. P. 251.

The " Curator " of the Ro>al Society was an officer who attended to the experiments, etc.

'23*Museums : their History and their Use. By David Murray, LL.D., F.S.A. 3 vols.
Glasgow. 1904.

It was not until after this Address had practically been finished that I had an opportunity
of consulting this valuable work. Had I seen it earlier I should have used it more freely.
In working up the history of the subject I was familiar with the chapter on " Collections of
Natural Curiosities '' in Beckmann's History of Inventions, and wit u Prof. Newton's paper
and a few other short notes; but struck with the scarcity of information on the subject, I
had said, in the draft of the address. " the history of museums has yet to be written."
Before the time came, however, to deliver the address Dr. Murray's comprehensive volume
had made its appearance

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 23.

evidently those which afterwards figured in the Royal Society's
Museum.

As soon as the Society thus acquired the nucleus of a collec-
tion, donations flowed in rapidly, including many objects of a
rather curious character. Sir Robert Moray, for instance,
presented " a bottle full of stag's tears" — reputed at that time
to possess much medicinal value. We have not, I believe, yet
procured for our Museum a similar specimen as a relic of the
red deer of Epping Forest.

When Boyle died in 1691 it was found that he had
bequeathed to the Society his mineral collection, or as he
described it, " all my raw and unprepared minerals as ores,
marchasites, earths, stones (excepting jewels), etc., to be kept
among their collections of the like kind, as a testimony of my
great respect for the illustrious Society." 24

But before the time of the Boyle bequest the collections had
grown so large that it was felt necessary to have a catalogue.
Accordingly, at a meeting on July 18, 1678, it was ordered " Tiiat
Dr. Grew be desired at his leasnre (sic) to make a Catalogue and
Description of the Rarities belonging to this Society." At that
time the Repository, as it was called, contained, we are told,
?' several thousand specimens of zoological subjects and foreign
curiosities." Nehemiah Grew, who was commissioned to
compile the catalogue, was a very learned, versatile, and
industrious man, especially distinguished for his researches in
vegetable physiology. He seems to have completed his catalogue
within a year, though it was not published until 1681, when it
appeared as a folio of 388 pagss. with an anatomical supplement
of 43 pages. It was dedicated to Daniel Colwall, a wealthy
citizen, described as Founder of the Museum, and his portrait
forms the frontispiece.' 24 *

The catalogue is in many places very quaint and amusing
reading, and offers an insight into the state of natural history
two centuries ago. In 1682 Grew was appointed to take charge
of the Repository under the title of " Praefectus Musei Regalis
Societatis," and he was requested to " make a short catalogue of

24 The quotations are from A History of the Royal Society. By Charles Richard Weld.
London : 1848.

24*Musceum Regalis Societatis, or a Catalogue and Description of the Natmal and Artificial
Rarities belonging to the Royal Society, and preserved at Gresham College. Made by
Nehemiah Grew, M.D. Whereunto Is Subjoined the Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs aiui
Guts. By the same Author. London : 1681.

24 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

the Raritys, with a method for the ready finding them out."
They were indeed a very miscellaneous collection, including,
according to the catalogue, not only all kinds of animals, plants,
and minerals, but also metals and chemical products, physical
apparatus and models, coins and various antiquities, ethnological
objects, and curios in general. In fact, so august a body as the
Royal Society seems in those days to have regarded a museum
much as Horace Walpole regarded it at a later date, as " A
hospital for everything that is singular."

When the Government granted rooms to the Society no space
was provided for the museum, and consequently on removal from
Gresham College the collections were presented to the newly-
established British Museum. The Royal Society's Museum,
after a life of rather more than a century, ceased to exist as such
in the year 1779.

I am not ambitious enough in this address to attempt
to trace, even in the barest outline, the general history
of museums. Where was the first museum, and who was its
curator, are questions which no man is ever likely to answer.
Reference has often been made to the collections of Aristotle and
other naturalists of classical antiquity, and to the treasures
of Solomon and Hezekiah ; whilst some writers have even been
bold enough to suggest that prehistoric man was not without
his little Museum. Forty years ago M. Dupont discovered in a
limestone cavern on the bank of the river Lasse, in Belgium,
a collection of fossil shells, including the gigantic Cerithium,
which must have been brought a distance of 40 or 50 miles, with
a piece of fluor-spar, and various other objects. Possibly they
were brought together as mysterious objects for worship, or per-
haps only as personal decorations ; but the late Mr. G. H. Morton,
of Liverpool, thought it more likely that they were collected as
mere curiosities — prehistoric curios. 25

As practical people, however, it is more to our present
purpose to utilize the brief time at our disposal in dealing with
the museums of our own country, in comparatively modern
times.

At the time the Royal Society founded its Museum, the only
collection of importance in this country seems to have been that

25 " Museums of the Past, the Present, and the Future." Proc. Liverpool Nat. Field
Club lor 1893.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 2$

of the Tradescants. 2 * 5 John Tradescant, the elder, who travelled
as a botanist, and was gardener to Queen Henrietta Maria, is
described by an old writer as " a painful industrious searcher,
and lover of all Nature's varieties," but his tastes were not con-
fined to natural history, and the museum which he formed at
Lambeth became an omnium gatherum. The collections were
augmented by his son John Tradescant, who in 1656 published
a catalogue of his " Rarities," which he described as being " more
■for variety than any one place known in Europe could afford. " 27
The museum, known as " Tradescant's Ark," became one of the
curiosities of the age — " a world of wonders in one closet shut."
Prof. Newton, of Cambridge, has referred to the two Tradescants
as " the parents of British Musaeology," 28 and as such they
command our profound homage.

It appears that the second Tradescant made over his " Closet
of Curiosities" by deed of gift, in 1659, to his friend Elias
Ashmole, but by a will of later date bequeathed the collection to
his wife, for her life. This led, unfortunately, but not unnaturally,
to litigation. After a while, however, the museum passed to
Ashmole, whose name it afterwards bore.

Ashmole, who thus became possessed of the extensive collec-
tions of the Tradescants, was a learned man of versatile tastes,
leaning especially towards heraldry, astrology, and alchemy. A
liking for botany seems to have attracted him to Tradescant,
with whom at one time he lodged. On acquiring the " Ark,'' he
built for its reception a house in South Lambeth, adjoining that
previously occupied by Tradescant. After retaining the collection
for some years, and much enriching it, he offered to present it to
the University of Oxford, provided that a suitable building were
erected for its reception. This condition having been accepted,
the " Ashmolean Museum " was built from plans, said to be by Sir
Christopher Wren ; and in 1682, twenty years after the death
of the younger Tradescant, the collection was removed in twelve
wagons from Lambeth to Oxford. Dr. Plot, the historian of
Oxfordshire and Staffordshire, became the first curator. In an
old essay on the " History of Museums," read before the

26 Excellent biographies of the Tradescants, by Prof. G. S. Boulger, will be found in the

Dictionary of National Biography.

27 Musceum Tradescantianum ; or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth, neer

(sic) London." By John Tradescant. London : 1656.

28 " Notes on some old Museums." By Alfred Newton, M.A., V.P.R.S. Rep. Museums

Assoc, Cambridge Meeting, 1891, p. 32.

26 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

Ashmolean Society, the author says " It is agreed on by all our
antiquaries that the Tradescant collection, which was the
foundation of the Ashmolean Museum, was the earliest exhibited
in Britain."' 29

On the Continent, however, there were collections of no mean
importance a hundred years earlier. A printed catalogue exists,
for instance, of the Kentmann Cabinet, dated 1565. Johann
Kentmann was a physician, who lived at one time at Torgau in
Saxony, and afterwards at Dresden. The doctor had collected
about 1,600 specimens, chiefly minerals and fossils, with a few
shells, corals, and other marine objects, and preserved his collec-
tion in an ark. or cabinet, of 13 double drawers, figured in the
catalogue. This catalogue was published by the doctor's good
friend Gesner, in a volume which contains also a number of
scientific essays, including a treatise on precious stones and other
minerals. 30

Coorad Gesner, who has been styled " The German Pliny,"
seems to have been one of the most remarkable men the
world has ever seen. At one time he was professor of the
Greek language, at another time professor of medicine, and
again we hear of his holding a chair of philosophy. His industry
was prodigious, for though he died before he was fifty years
of age (b. 1516, d. 1565) he left a vast number of works relating
to most diverse subjects. Every branch of natural history
secured his sympathy, and he formed a collection much larger
and more important than Kentmann's, though I am not aware
that a catalogue of it is included in his writings. To
accommodate this collection he built at Zurich a Museum
surrounded by a botanic garden. It is related that knowing his
end was approaching he had a couch placed in his Museum and
was carried thither, so that he might expire in the midst
of those objects to which he was so devoted. It is with good
reason that Gesner has been called the " Father of Natural
History Museums." 31 His collection passed, on his death,
to his friend Felix Plater, a doctor in Basle, 32 who possessed a
notable collection.

29 A Catalogue of the Ashmolean Museum. Oxford : 1836.

30 De Omni Rerum Fossilium Geneie, Gemmis, Lapidibus, Metallis et hujusmedi, Libri
aliquot, plurique nunc primum editi. Opera Conradi Gesneri. Ti^uri ; MDLXV.

31 Presidential Address by Rev. Henry H Higgins, M.A. Report Museums Assoc,
Liverpool Meeting, 1890.

32 Conrad Gesner : Kin Beyt>ag zur Geschichte des WissenschaftUchen Strebens und de*
Glaubensveibesserunp: im 16 ten Jahrhundert. By Johannes Hanhart. Winterthur: 1S24. p. 270.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 1J

Our illustrious countryman, Ray, in passing through Basle,
visited Plater's Museum, which he describes as " a good
collection of minerals, stones, metals, dried fishes, and other
natural and artificial rarities," and he goes on to say that these
were "disposed in a good method, the names being set to each
one. 33 Plater had evidently the methodical instinct of the true
curator.

Gesner's museum carries us back at least 350 years, but we
might pursue the history of museums to a much more remote
period, for we know that there were collections of natural
objects occasionally made by men in advance of their generation.
To us, however, it is more interesting to note the character of
the museums which satisfied the wants of our forefathers in
less remote times.

During the eighteenth century, and even later, there were
several proprietary museums opened in London and elsewhere as
shows. Probably the most famous was that of Sir Ashton Lever.
Born at Alkrington, near Manchester, in 1729, he developed in
early life a great taste for collecting, and being possessed of ample
means, acquired a large collection. This he removed, in 1774,
from Alkrington Hall to London, and he then exhibited it at
Leicester House, in Leicester Square. He styled his exhibition
the " Holophysikon," and charged each visitor 5s. 3d. for
admission. Having spent a very large sum on his museum his
affairs became embarrassed and he offered his collection at a very
moderate price to the trustees of the British Museum. By them,
however,it was declined. Lever then obtained parliamentary power
to dispose of it by lottery, the value officially put upon it being
£53,ooo. At the lottery the prize fell to a certain James Parkinson,
who had been a law-stationer and estate agent. He not un-
naturally endeavoured to dispose of it, and seems to have entered
into negotiations with people of importance, like the Queen of
Portugal and the Empress of Russia; but these negotiations fell
through, and as the rent of Leicester House was considerable he
purchased a piece of ground in Albion Street, Southwark, in which
he erected a building that came to be known as the Rotunda. 34 To
this museum the admission was half-a-crown, and for some years

33 " Travels through the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France." 2nd ed., 1738,.
P- 85.

34 A view of the interior of the Museum is engraved as a frontispiece to the Catalogue,
entitled A Companion to the Museum (late Sir Ashton Level's). Removed to Albion Street, the
Surrey End of Black Friars bridge. London, 1790.

28 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

it flourished as one of the sights of London. An American
naturalist, C. W. Poole, describing a visit to London in 1800,
says : — " The trouble to obtain a sight of the British Museum
renders it of less value to the public than a private collection
belonging to Mr. Parkinson, called the Leverian Museum."
Eventually, however, the popularity of this museum declined,
and in 1806 it was sold by auction — the sale extending over 65
days, and including 7,819 lots. The Rotunda was afterwards
used for some time as a scientific institution.

Another metropolitan museum, well known in the early part
of the last century, was Bullock's Museum, which had the
advantage over Lever's of a more central situation, and a smaller
admission fee. William Bullock was originally a silversmith and
jeweller in Lord Street, Liverpool, where he opened, in 1801, a
Museum of Natural and Artificial Curiosities, which he described
-as " comprising upwards of 800 objects." The admission to this
modest collection was is., or by an annual ticket costing 10s. 6d.
After removing his collection to other premises in Liverpool, he
brought it, in 1809, to London, and exhibited it at No. 22,
Piccadilly, at first under the name of " the Liverpool Museum."
By this time the original 800 specimens had increased to 7,000,
described as " Natural and Foreign Curiosities, Antiquities, and
Products of the Fine Arts," which had cost the owner
^20,000. Its popularity was so great that Bullock was led
to build for its reception the Egyptian Hall. This remarkable
building, now about to be pulled down, was erected in 1812, from
the designs of Mr. P. F. Robinson, at a cost of ^"30,000. When
transferred to the " Egyptian Gallery " the collection became
known as the " London Museum," and was described by the
owner, in his guide book, as consisting of upwards of 15,000
specimens " collected during 20 years of unwearied application,
and at an expense exceeding ;£ 30,000." Mr. Bullock refers to
his museum as " an Establishment for the Advancement of the
Science of Natural History, which in magnitude and expense,
he presumes, is unparalleled as the work of an individual." 35

In 1819, Bullock's collection was brought to the hammer, the
sale including 3,331 lots, extending over 26 days, and realizing
about ^12,000. After the sale, Bullock went to Mexico, and

35 " A Companion to the London Museum and Pantherion, containing a brief description
of upwards of 15,000 natural and foreign curiosities, antiquities, and productions of fine
arts ; now open for public inspection at the Egyptian Temple, Piccadilly, London." By
William Bullock.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 29.

formed large collections which he brought home and exhibited
in the Egyptian Hall, in 1824, in the form of two exhibitions
called " Ancient Mexico " and " Modern Mexico." From the
guide-books which I possess to all his exhibitions it is clear that
Bullock was a man of much enthusiasm for natural history and
archaeology.

Before the days of the large museums of Lever and Bullock,
it was the custom to form small collections at houses of refresh-
ment as an attraction to the customers. Of these, perhaps, the
most famous was that in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, opened in 1695
by the eccentric John Salter, known as " Don Saltero." He had
been for many years in the service of Sir Hans Sloane, who had
given him most of the specimens with which he started the
museum that he called the " Chelsea Knackatory." Steele speaks
of " ten thousand gimcracks round the room and on the ceiling."
The miscellaneous assemblage of things included, however, a
large number of natural-history objects. Faulkner, the historian
of Chelsea, refers to " a great variety of petrifactions, corals,
chrystals, ores, shells, animals preserved in spirits, stuffed
animals from various parts of the world, idols, curious Chinese
manuscripts, missals, birds, snakes, butterflies, medals," etc. It
is the custom to smile and sneer at these old miscellaneous
collections, but Faulkner sympathetically remarks that they
" cherished the infancy of science, and should not be depreciated
now, as the playthings of a boy are scorned after he has arrived
at manhood." 36

When Don Saltero's collection of curiosities was sold by
auction in 1799, the total amount realized was but little over

£50!

The days of Salter's " auld knick-knackets " are over, but
even at the present day collections of curiosities at public places
of refreshment are not altogether unknown ; witness, for example,
the museum of the Edinburgh Castle, in Camden Town, which
has become quite famous for the eggs of the Great Auk.

Let us turn now to the county in which our Club is specially
interested. Whether any antiquary has ever been able to ascer-
tain when the first museum was formed in Essex, I know not.
Probably here as elsewhere private collections have always been

36 An historical and topographical description of Chehea and its Environs. By Thomas
Faulkner. London : 18^9, vol. 1, p. 382.

30 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

made, more or less systematically by students of natural history,
though such collections might never rise to the dignity of a
museum. Our great Essex naturalist, John Ray, must surely
have possessed a collection. His friend and benefactor, Francis
Willughby, we know collected extensively and secured the
advantage of Ray's curatorial assistance. In a letter to Martin
Lister, dated June 18, 1667, Ray says: "The most part of the
winter I spent in reviewing and helping to put in order Mr.
Willughby's collection of birds, fishes, shells, stones, and other
fossils; seeds, dried plants, coins, etc." 37

It is clear therefore that the Willughby collection was of a
very comprehensive character. Ray, being a man of restricted
means, could hardly indulge in a similar manner, however wide
his sympathies may have been ; but that he had some kind of
collection is clear, for we are told that " whatever he had
preserved relative to any branch of natural history he gave
before his death to his neighbour, Air. Samuel Dale." 38 The Ray
collection therefore passed to his executor, and the herbarium
was presented by him to the Physic Garden at Chelsea, but
ultimately found an appropriate resting place in the British
Museum.

One of the earliest, and still one of the best, natural history
museums ever founded by a local society in this country is the
museum at Saffron Walden. Soon after the foundation of a
Natural History Society in that town, in 1832, it was resolved
" that a museum be founded to include specimens in the several
departments of natural history, with antiquarian remains and
such other articles as might be of general or local interest."
The collections were accommodated at first in the house of Mr.
Jabez Gibson, who had been mainly instrumental in organizing the
society, but in 1834 they were removed to the building specially
erected for their reception by Lord Braybrooke. This museum
was opened on May 12th, 1835.

That the special value of a local collection was recognized
at that time is evident from a statement circulated before the
building was opened, in which it was said that " the con-
centration of Specimens peculiar to the District in which
the Museum is established will form a leading feature in its

37 Dr. Derham's Life in Memorials of John Kay. Edited by Edwin Lankester.Ray Society:
1845, p. 17.

38 Sir J. E. Smith in the Ray Society's volume, p. 85.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 31

arrangement." At the same time the collections included
specimens from widely distant parts of the world, and these
of such exceptional interest in certain cases that the museum
positively surpassed at that time the British Museum. The
skeletons and skins of the African elephant and the two-horned
rhinoceros were said to be the earliest ever known in this
country ; indeed, the specimen of the African elephant, stuffed
by Mr. Joseph Clarke, was considered to be of such interest that
it was sent to the Great Exhibition of 1851. Many of the larger
mammals were due to the generosity of Mr. George Wombwell,
the proprietor of the menagerie, who took, from his local
association, great interest in the museum.

It is a notable proof of the intelligence and enterprise of the
organisers of this museum that within ten years of its foundation
they published an admirable catalogue. 39 Sixty years have
slipped by since that work was issued, and during this time
science has indeed made startling progress, yet it may be fairly
said that the production of such a catalogue — so carefully
compiled, admirably printed, and delicately illustrated— would be
creditable to any provincial museum even at the present day.
From the frontispiece we get an insight into an Essex Museum
sixty years ago, and the view is one in which an Essex man may
justly feel pride ! We are not surprised that, according to
Mr. Miller Christy, the catalogue " is said to have been the
best of its kind in existence at that day." 40

Since the Saffron Walden Museum was founded, now seventy
years ago, the museum movement, at that time scarcely
recognised, has made marvellously rapid progress. In 1845, the
year in which the SaffronWalden catalogue was published, an Act
was passed by the Legislature, enabling certain municipal
bodies to levy a rate for the establishment of museums of science
and art. From this small beginning we have advanced, until at
the present day most of our museums are under municipal
authority, so that, unlike museums belonging to local societies
they enjoy an income which though it may be small is yet
officially assured. Without such support by the West Ham
Corporation, where would be our Essex museum !

When we remember the difficulty of formerly obtaining
access to the British Museum, when we remember too that to see

39 An Abridged Catalogue of the Saffron Walden Mum urn. 1854.

40 The Birds of Essex. Essex Field Club Special Memoirs, vol.ii., 1890.

32 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

the Leverian museum in Leicester Square the visitor had to
pay at least five shillings, we ought indeed to congratulate our-
selves that our lot is cast in such enlightened times that we have
municipal museums freely scattered throughout our land, which
may be visited by anyone without entrance fee or other
hindrance. The museum has come to be recognised, in the
words of Mr. E. Howarth, as " an essential element of
municipal life." 41 It is hardly too much to say that every free
library should have associated with it a free museum. Indeed,
many who have given much thought to the matter have been led
to conclude that the museum is perhaps in some respects the more
important of the two institutions. " Museums," said Professor
Boyd Dawkins, " appeal to the interest of many, while books
and a taste for books interest a narrower circle." 42 Turning to
the admirable speech delivered by the Countess of Warwick, at
the opening of our Essex museum, we find the opinion expressed
that " the foundation of a local museum for purposes of study
and reference is as valuable — perhaps even more valuable — than
a public library, for the drift of modern thought in the direction
of scientific education is towards a knowledge of nature rather
than a knowledge of books." 43 It is obvious that the young
student learns more by direct relation with the concrete natural
objects — the minerals, the plants, the animals — even if he merely
sees them in glass-cases — than he can possibly learn about them
by mere reading. An Amercian writer lias remarked that " the
near future may well see as great an interest in the establishment
of museums as there is now in the founding of libraries. 44

The day has gone by when people could afford to sneer
at local museums — "the little museums accumulated for the
service of science by the philosophers of all our country
towns." 45 It must be admitted that the old type of provincial
museum founded by the enthusiasm of a few members of a local
society usually left much to be desired. When the founders
passed away, it often became difficult, sometimes impossible,
to find successors who would carry on the work of the museum,
and the collections were consequently doomed sooner or later to

41 Report, Museums. Association, Canterbury Meeting, 1900, p. 76.

42 Ibid. Manchester Meeting, 1892.

43 Essex Naturalist, Vol. xi. (1900), p. 325.

44 "The Opportunity of the Smaller Museums of Natural History."— Popular Science
Monthly, May, 1903, p. 40.

45 A Second Letter to a Dissenter on the Opposition of the University of Oxford to the
Charter of the London College. By the Rev. W. Sewell, M.A., 1834.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

33

fall a prey to neglect. Hence, there was little to induce the
possessors of valuable objects to give them to the local museum.
But all this is now changed. Public opinion to-day recognises
that the care of the local museum is as much a part of the duty
of the Corporation as the care of the public roads. " The one
vital principle which surrounds Corporations," says Mr. Green-
wood, " is that they are gifted with perpetual life." 40 Anyone
therefore who gives a collection to a municipal museum feels
that its care is permanently assured.

Since the Essex Field Club was founded, a quarter of a
century ago, there has been a great advance in the popular
appreciation of museums. An important step was taken in
1886, when the British Association appointed a committee
to report upon the Provincial Museums of this country. The
reports of this committee drawn up by the late Mr. F. J. Mott
as Secretary, form a valuable repertory of information.

But a far more important step was taken by the formation,
in 1889, of the Museums Association. Then, for the first time,
the Curators throughout the country became organised. At the
annual meetings of this Association the Curators and others
interested in museums meet in conference, so that all matters of
museum economy can be fully discussed by experts.
Those who wish to know something about modern museums
will find information of the most valuable character in the
Annual Reports and in The Museums Journal, which is the
organ of the association. Here the reader is made acquainted
with the most recent methods of museum work, and will thus
realise the admirable manner in which most of our provincial
museums are becoming organised.

As an example of a museum which in spite of very restricted
space, and with only moderate resources, may yet profit by the
modern system of museum technique, we may point with some
pride to our own museum at Stratford. Let it ever be remembered,
however, that the maintenance of a museum, worthy of the
present day, involves an immense amount of labour. It was a
remark of the late Sir William Flower, that " a museum is like
a living organism — it requires continual and tender care. It
must grow or it will perish. " i7 No words could be more just.
However carefully a collection may be arranged, it will, if left to

46 Museums and Art Galleries. By Thomas Greenwood, London iS3S c

47 JUssays on Museums p. 13.

34 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

itself, inevitably degenerate. The tender care of the Curator
is needed incessantly. The Rev. H. H. Higgins, who was for
so many years the enthusiastic honorary Curator of the Liverpool
Museum, well said that "the Curator is the soul of the
museum" — a sentiment endorsed by most authorities on museum
organization. Yet how often does it happen that as we pass
through a well- arranged museum we forget the Curator ! The
visitor seems usually to think that the specimens are able to
shuffle about and arrange themselves in scientific order. But if
in the midst of an orderly arrangement there should be some
small part of the collection in an unsatisfactory condition, the
Curator is then by no means forgotten. In accordance with the
common tendency of human criticism, we are apt to overlook
the bulk of the collection in all its fair aspect, and centre our
attention on the disfiguring speck.

However devoted and however smart a Curator may be, he
finds it impossible to make bricks without straw. In order that
his museum may be in creditable condition, he needs all the neat
appliances which are now in the market for mounting and
displaying specimens ; he needs the best books of reference for
the identification of the objects which pass through his hands ;
he requires assistance at least to carry out such mechanical
details as mounting and labelling. Above all, the cases and
cabinets in the museum must be of the best construction, so as to
protect their contents from dust and other sources of deterioration.
If we have any regard for our collection, it will be found the
worst possible policy to buy cheap cabinets. Taking all this
into consideration, a museum is often denounced as an expensive
fad. Never was there a greater mistake ; it is not a fad, and
considering its value to the community it is not expensive. " If
you compare its cost with that of any other part of our
educational machinery, I maintain," said Mr. Charles Madeley,
" that it is exceedingly cheap." 48

Admitting the value of Museums, under certain conditions,
objection has sometimes been taken to their multiplication. It
has been held that in proportion as they become common they
will cease to be impressive. We in London surely cannot want
them. What need can there be to have small Museums in
or near the metropolis, when we have the doors of the

48 " District Museums." Museums Journal vol. IV. (1904). p. 117.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 35

National Museum always open in our very midst ! Everything
that we can hope to shew in a small museum, may certainly be
found in the British Museum.

I have already referred, however, to the bewildering effect
of large collections. There is no question that the wealth
of specimens is apt to throw the untrained visitor into a state of
mental distraction. Mr. Thomas Greenwood has observed that
u there is such a condition of mind as picture drunkenness
or Museum drunkenness." 49 Depend upon it a small collection
■encourages concentration of attention, whilst a large collection
tempts to diffusion of thought. Just as every student knows
" it is better to digest a chapter than to read a volume," so it is
far better to see a small collection, and remember what it
teaches, than to range aimlessly over a vast museum.

Many years ago when it was proposed to establish a local
museum at Wimbledon, Mr. Joseph Toynbee delivered an
•excellent address in which he advanced the view that in a large
town or city, each parish should have its own museum, exhibiting
the objects collected within a radius of five miles from the
parish." 50

No thoughtful person will despise a small museum, or
•object to such museums being multiplied, when he reflects on the
utility of such humble institutions to the young people in their
immediate neighbourhood. If any one desires to see what may
be done with small means, let him visit the little museums
at Stepney under the care of Miss Kate Hall. 51 This enthusiastic
lady, by her admirable demonstrations, has made her museums
living centres of light and learning to the children of the East
End.

The subject of demonstrations is one of great importance in
viewing museums from an educational standpoint. Many
persons fail to feel interest in a visit to a museum merely
because they have no one to direct them and offer simple
explanations of what they see. A party of visitors will often
sigh for some " museum Cook," who could personally conduct
them round the institution. Such conduct, however, needs to be in
capable hands. In the early days of the British Museum it was
the custom for the attendants to take the visitors, in small parties,

49 Museums and A rt Galleries, p. 29.

50 " Hints on the Formation of Local Museums. p 21.

51 See her paper, "The Smallest Museum," The Museums Journal, vol. i. (1902), p. 38

36 ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS.

from room to room ; but the practice does not appear to have
been always satisfactory. At any rate a visitor in the beginning
of the last century, was led to complain that the conductor
treated the company to ' ; witticisms-dn various subjects of natural
history, in a style of vulgarity and impudence, which I should
not have expected to have met in this place." 5 ' 2

Formal demonstrations in a museum are generally attended
with more difficulty than most people imagine ; and after much
experience, both as a listener and as a demonstrator, I was led
some years ago to suggest that the formal demonstration, or
lecture, should be given in a neighbouring room rather than in
the midst of the cases. 53 It is gratifying to find that at the Essex
Museum arrangements are now being made, whereby a
convenient room, with electric lantern and screen, will be placed
at the disposal of those who desire to give demonstrations in
illustration of the contents of the museum.

In a paper on the utilization of local museums read at the
last meeting of the British Association, the Rev. YV. Johnson, of
York, described the excellent work of Mr. Crowther, the Curator
in Leeds, in lecturing to the schools, which systematically visit the
museum ; and considering the great value of such work he
strongly advocated its extension, with payment by the local
authorities for the additional labour thus thrown upon the
Curator. " This work," said Mr. Johnson, "is at any rate as
well worthy of this support as are free libraries, or municipal
bands, or art-galleries." 54

Apart from formal lectures and demonstrations, a visitor to
a Museum would often be glad of a description of some
particular object, or group of specimens, of exceptional interest,
and would be quite willing to pay a small fee for such a
description by some competent person. Prof. Anton Fritsch,
of Prague, has playfully suggested that the day may come when
a visitor, standing in front of some interesting specimen, will
have simply to drop a coin into a slot connected with a phono-
graph, and forthwith he will hear a short discourse on the
specimen in the very words, nay, even the very voice, of some

52 Journal of a Tour and Residence in Great Britain, in, Ike years 1810-1811.
By Louis Simond. 1815. vol. i., p. 84.

53 "On the difficulties incidental to Museum Demonstrations." Report Museum
Association, Cambridge Meeting, 1891, p. 71.

54 Report British Association, Cambridge Meeting, 1904.

ON NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. 37

distinguished professor." 55 Many a true word is proverbially
spoken in jest, and, in conclusion, I commend this idea to our
Curator, who happens to be much interested in talking machines.
We already have in the Essex Museum, for the use of the
public, a microscope and a spinthariscope. Why not a
phonograph ?

In now relinquishing the honourable position to which your
suffrages kindly, and quite undeservedly, called me two years
ago, I am anxious to express my deep sense of obligation to the
officers, the Council, and the members generally — but especially
to the Honorary Secretaries — for the generous assistance and
loyalty which they have uniformly rendered to me, and for the
courteous indulgence which they have extended to me, during
my occupation of the presidential chair. The pleasure with
which I shall look back upon my tenure of this position will be
greatly enhanced by the feeling that I am succeeded by one so
much more worthy in every way to conduct the affairs of this
important organization. In Mr. Miller Christy, the Essex Field
Club has at once a local naturalist, who has made his mark by
a standard work on the Birds of Essex, and an antiquary who
is an acknowledged authority on many branches of county
history — one who has always been zealous in his support of
this Club in the past ; one who will, I feel sure, be yet more
zealous for its welfare in the future.

55 "The Museum Question in Europe and America." The Museums Journal, vol. iii.
(1904), p. 248.

38

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

By WILFRED MARK WEBB, F.L.S., and CHARLES SILLEM.
(With Plates I. — XXV., and numerous other Illustrations).

Introduction. — Having finished a somewhat exhaustive
list of the land and fresh -water molluscs of Essex, 1 one of the
present writers felt that if he were to make any further con-
tributions of importance to a knowledge of the fauna of that
interesting county, he must turn his attention to some other
group of animals. It seemed most fitting that some creatures
should be chosen which are commonly met with during the search
for molluscs. Centipedes, millepedes, and woodlice fulfilled
these conditions, and all were collected, but as only seventeen
species of woodlice had at the time been found in England, it
was deemed advisable to study these in detail to begin with.
The present contribution is the result of the undertaking, and we
have thought that a general consideration of the British Woodlice,.
with careful drawings from nature of all the species now known
from this country, ought to lead to a more general study of these
interesting creatures and their habits.

Position in the scheme of classification. — The Woodlice
belong to an immense group of invertebrate animals known as
the Arthropoda, the bodies of which are segmented and provided
with jointed appendages for purposes of walking, swimming, and
feeding. Of this group, two large divisions are recognized. The
first contains the forms which breathe by means of air tubes,
such as the Insects ; and the second has been constituted for
Crustacea, which breathe by means of gills. The latter are, of
course, adapted mere especially for a life in water, but here and
there we come across examples so modified that they can exist
in air. The land-crabs are a case in point, and so are the Wood-
lice. These belong to an order which contains many fresh-water
and marine species, known as the Isopoda.

Geological history. — The known history of the order is a
long one, for remains occur in the Old Red Sandstone (Devonian)
of Herefordshire, and in the Coal Measures. (79 s ). A form

1 "The Non-Marine Molluscs of Essex," by Wilfred Mark Webb; Essex Naturalist,
Vol. x. (1S97), pp. 27-48 and 65-S1.

2 The numbers in brackets refer to papers mentioned in the Bibliography at the end.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

39

which has been named Avchaoniscus brodiei, and is said to be
referable to the recent family Aegidae is found in some numbers
in the Purbeck Beds (Upper Jurassic), of this country (47).
Fossil Isopods have also been recorded from the Oolite and
from the Oligocene (Isle of Wight).

Turning to the Woodlice proper, we find that they first make
their appearance in the Miocene (of Oenigen and Baden), and
occur also in amber (79) ; while examples of the genera, such as
Oniscus and Porcellio, have been discovered in late Tertiary
deposits (47).

External structure and appendages. — Woodlice agree

Za&ral lode ry ^

eye — €2j

HEAD

/vFvsn

Zateval' Ut^]W

\ THORAX

n* U^-^

r (mesvscrme)

Za&ral

Tete

>07V

ABDOMEN

FIG. I. — PARTS OF THE BCDV

(Oniscus osellus.)

in being of a somewhat oval form, and their bodies are arched,
the curve varying in different genera and species. A head is to
be distinguished ; behind this comes the thorax of seven segments
which are often considerably broader than the six succeeding
ones which form the abdomen (see fig. 1.)

The head carries two large antennae (fig. 3)
which are very evident, and a careful search
with a lens will reveal a second and minute
pair (the smaller antennae) situated between the
base of the others, and really anterior to them,
(figs. 2 and 4.)

The larger antennae are customarily bent
at certain points, and we can distinguish a

FIG. 2.-THE FIRST
ANTENNA.

(Oniscus asellus.)

40

THE BRITISH WOODLICE,

terminal part, or fiagellum, and a basal part, the peduncle (fig. 3).
The number of joints in these structures, which varies in different
genera and species, forms a useful -classificatory character, and

Proximal
c/ouid

FLAGELLUM

PEDUNCLE

FIG. 3,— THE SECOND ANTENNA.

(Oniscus asellus.)

the relative length of the component parts is of considerable
value in distinguishing species.

There are four pairs of mouth appendages — namely the jaws

Upper Up

Mandible...

Moutk,'-

•dBase of

.Zaleral
"'■••lobe

ez/e

(compound)

Maxiliipeds

FIG. 4.-THK UNDERSIDE OF THE HEAD.

(Oniscus asellus.)

or mandibles (fig. 5), the first maxillae (fig. 6), the second maxillae
(fig. 7), and the maxillipeds (fig. 8). When the head is examined
from the underside the last of these organs will be seen first,
covering in the others.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

41

A small median plate attached to the front of the head has
>een called " the upper lip "(fig. 9), while inside the mouth

appendages is a little bilobed structure
" the lower lip " (fig. 10).

Before leaving the external features
of the head, we must allude to the
pair of eyes which are usually present,
though never raised on stalks. In
the Common Wood-louse (Oniscus
asellus, from which all our figures to
illustrate structure have been made),
as in many other species, the eyes are
compound (fig. 4), but in some forms
these are simple.

Each of the seven joints of the
thorax bears a pair of walking legs
(fig. 1 1), and in the female at the time
when the eggs are laid, a pair of
plates (fig. 12) arises on segments
II. to V. These plates together

FIG. 5 — THE MANDIBLES.

(Oniscus asellus.)

FIG. 6. — THE FIRST MAXILLAE.

(Oniscus asellus.)

FIG. 7. — THE SECOND MAXILLAE,

(Oniscus asellus.)

FIG. 8.— THE FUSED MAXILLIPEDS.

(Oniscus asellus.)

form a brood pouch, in which the eggs are carried (fig. 12)
until they are hatched, and in which the young ones remain
for some time afterwards.

42

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

When we examine the abdomen, we find that the appendages
are plate-like, with the exception of the last pair (fig. 13), and

/?07ZS/xZ Plate

FIG. 9. — THE ' ; UPPER LIP.

{Oiuscns asellus )

FIG IO. — THE ''LOWER LII

(Oniscus aselhis.)

FIG. II. — A TYPICAL THORACIC SEGMENT

(Oniscus asellus.)

they all agree in having two divisions, an arrangement which
would prove awkward in limbs used for walking or feelinsf.

Body caf>ify\
(wdk Vcdcera, \
removed)

Jtoz&al pfa&

plode

Left,

plate of \
drvod poucffi
(oosCegde)

BROOD POUCH

\J containing &}<&>) 1

fios-tftoro of &fe
cpew/u/ <fffie oviduct

\J$asaZ

of5£fa?7d)
wcd&np leg

FIG. 12.— THE FIFTH THORACIC SEGMENT OF A FEMALE.

(Oniscus asellus.)

The inner plate (or endopodite) is in structure a gill, but
the blood that passes through it, is enabled to take up oxygen

THE BRITISH WOODLICE,

43-

from moist air, while the outer division (or exopodite) acts as a
protecting cover (fig. 14). In Povcelii", air-tubes (tracheae) may

? ABDOMINAL

APPENDAGES

Bewzng

» Telsori

FIG. 13. — THE UNDERS

JZxopodcte

be present (see below).

In the male the first
two pairs of abdominal
appendages are specially
modified, the inner divi-
sions (endopodites) being
long and pointed (figs. 15
and 16). The last pair,
or tail appendages, in the
male are often consider-
ably larger than in the
structures is sometimes of

(EridopoaMe)

IDE OF THE ABDOMEN OF A

female. (Oniscus asellus.)

female, and the form of these
value in classification.

Alimentary canal. — The
main portion of the alimentary
system is, practically speaking,
a straight tube (fig. 17). Its
first part (not shown in the
figure) is a narrow gullet, which
after passing through the nerve
collar dilates to form a sort of
stomach. Into this the secretion
of four digestive glands is poured by two ducts. These glands
have a somewhat striking appearance, being yellow tubes spirally

. — A TYPICAL ABDOMINAL
APPENDAGE-

(Oniscus asellus.)

Exo-
-podiit,

Endopodiie

FIG. 15. — THE FIRST ABDOMINAL
APPENDAGE OK THE MALE.

(Oniscus asellus.)

Erufopodife

FIG. l6.— THE SECOND ABDOMINAL
APPENDAGE OF THE MALE

(Oniscus asullus.)

coiled, and they end blindly. From the stomach the intestine
runs to the hinder end of the body and passes under the heart.

44

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

Circulatory system — The blood being aerated in the
abdominal appendages, we find that the heart is situated towards

the hinder end of the body (fig. 18).
&&77iacfc Three main arteries supply the

thorax and head, while the
blood is brought from the gills
to the heart.

Excretory system. — The ex-
cretory organs consist of a (a)
pair of so-called " shell glands,"
which are considered to be the
equivalents of the excretory
tubes or nephridia of annelid

HEART

Jfy&r&h; yfakafr

FIG. 17. — THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.

{Oniscus asellus.)

worms. In the woodlouse
these excretory organs open
on the second pair of maxillae.
They are composed of a
tube {sacculus) closed at one
end and more or less bent upon
itself (5, p. 261) which com-
municates with a labyrinth that
is provided with an excretory
orifice. Matters are eliminated
by the epithelial cells [the his-
tology has been described and

figured in Ligidium hypnerum (66)] , which are very large in Ligia
oceanic a.

CLvleny

FIG. IS.— THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

(Oniscus asellus.)

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

45

Cerzbxtl ganglia

(b) Masses of cellules in the head, very greatly developed in
Ligia oceanica (but numbering scarcely more than ten in Oniscus

asellus), which have no external
opening. They also function as
excretory organs (5, p. 263), and
have been called " cephalic nephro-
cytes."

(c) Other " branchial nephro-

cytes " are situated on the dorsal

surface between the last thoracic and

^Z31fGf a t ^ le ^ rst abdominal segments, as well

==J^tIL J—J?- > as between those that follow, with

the exception of the last two ; they
are in distinct patches, one on each
of the middle line in Ligia, but more

Cm7l7TUSSUr£S

surrounding

~?/w gul/et

and uniting

Ti? form

a

double cord

7/ie
alanen&az/
canal.

T/w facte segmerifo
OVARIES.

FIG. 19. — THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

(Oniscus asellus.)

or less continuous in
Oniscus (5, p. 265).

(d) The digestive
glands have also been
shown to be excretory
(5, P- 270).

Nervous system. —
The nervous system con-
sists of paired ganglia in
the head, above the
alimentary canal which
send off nerves (commis-
sures) that meet below, to
form a double nerve cord

-FEMALE REPRODUCTORY ORGANS.

(Oniscus asellus.)

with ganglia at intervals
(see fig. 19).
Reproductive organs.

— In the female there are

a pair of ovaries in the positions shewn in fig. 20 ; and ducts run

to the underside of the fifth thoracic segment.

4 6

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

The openings are very difficult to identify, and Lereboullet
.(39, p. 113) was unable to find them. It is obvious that the
openings must be underneath the plates that form the egg pouch,
.and as a change of skin is required to set these free, it would
appear that at ordinary seasons the ducts from the ovaries are
closed. The writers have

been able to determine * TESTES^.

from external examin- //' / V \ X.

ation of specimens which
had moulted and were
.about to lay eggs, that
the oviducts at such time
open to the inside of the
base of each walking leg
•on the fifth segment. In
similar specimens the
oviducts were also follow-
ed to the opening from
within. The brood pouch has
already been described.

The male organs con-
sist of six testes arranged
in two pairs, each of which
is provided with ^.reservoir
(see fig. 21). The efferent
ducts from the two reser-
voirs unite at the base of
the thorax to form a com-
mon duct (or-' penis ").

Development. — The
eggs, in the common
species of woodlice, at
least, are laid at the
beginning of summer, and are retained in the brood pouch,
where they undergo their development. The process has been
recently traced with great care by Professor Louis Rou:e (58)
in PovceUio scaler and the description which follows is based
upon his researches.

As, practically speaking, the larval stages are passed within
the egg, and there is no free embryo differing in form from the

£jfiere7i£
duel. "

(teft)

0?77Z77Z£7l

duct

Seminal
reservoir

fright)

^tkoracic
Jegtmenl

7 -pair of
>a6do7ra'?ial appe7u&u/es

[.-THE MALE REPRODUCTORY ORGANS.

(Oniscus asdlus.)

THE BRI'lISH WOODLICE.

47

parent, it is necessary for the young creatures to be well
supplied with nutritive material. In fact, the bulk of the large
egg is made up of food-yolk, on the outside of which the formative
protoplasm is disposed in irregular patches. In the fertilized
ovum, one of the latter, which lies in a particular position at the
end, is found to be larger than the others (see fig. 22). It
contains the nucleus of the egg-cell (see fig. 23) and is called the
cicatricula. This is the only portion of the egg which divides and
produces nucleated cells. It is these which gradually spread all
over the surface of the food-yolk, forming a layer known as the
blastoderm, which is at first but one cell thick (see figs. 24, 26,
and 28).

Before, however, the food-yolk is quite closed in, a differ-
entiation into two layers— the pro-ectoderm and pro-endoderm —
takes place (see fig. 25) and rudiments of the first two pairs of

Cicaizic
-ula

Tluclezzx
offfce

Protoplasm

Cicalucula

FIG. 22. — THE FERTILIZED EGG

(Porcellio sctiber), after roule.

FIG. 23. — THE FERTILIZED EGG SEEN IN SECTION

(Porcellio scaber), after roule.

appendages appear (see fig. 26). Moreover, the cells of the
ectoderm change their shape and begin to multiply at two
points to form the beginnings of the cerebral ganglia and the
nerve cord respectively.

As the blastoderm closes over the food-yolk, two more
appendages arise and these are soon followed by others (see fig.
28). A depression appears at the point where "the blastoderm
closed and internally the pro-endoderm or inner layer is differ-
entiated into two — the endoderm proper and the mesoderm (see fig.
29). The former begins to grow so that its edges unite to form
the middle part of the intestine (see fig. 29) seen from the outside
in fig. 30. The depression already mentioned grows deeper,
forming a tube which is the hind portion of the intestine, while at
the anterior end of the embryo the front part of the intestine is
similarly formed (see fig. 30). By this time also all the nineteen

48

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

SURFACE VIEWS.

Gcafn

forming
dwBiaM

derm

Pro-
ectodea

Pro- .
etutodehd

OPTICAL SECTIONS.

fflarfoder/7?

FIG. 25.

Jtizdim47i2sofj0k

\fBlasloderm

0) Cerebra£yfM%

:':''*\

ganglion fy

$M 1

:■&&

rapffti

' "•' .•':' : '• .••.• .

(2) Nerre ^jjj|

cord"

^^&i££p&

fflasfodeD
(complete)

Ectoderm
Mesoderm,
JFrzdoderm,

gndoderm
' fermuiy
mid-gut

Eudiment
of nerve cord

/tudwie/iti
(i)ffmd-guly
(st) Mid-guts
(3)Fore-gut

FIG. 3]

Mid-gut
... Anus
/tout-gut

"fatlsoftte
Sody cavity

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A WOODLOUSE {Porcellio SCaber), AFTER ROULE.

Figs. 24, 26, 28, 30, are Surface Views, and figs. 25, 27, 29, 31, which
indicate slightly later stages respectively than the others, are of eggs seen in Optical
Section.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

49

Fore-gut

FIG. 32. — EMBRYO OF THE WOODLOUSE SHOWING THE

THREE DIVISIONS OF THE INTESTINE SEPARATELY

DEVELOPED {PoVCellio SCClber). AFTER ROULE.

appendages have made their appearance and the mesoderm,
(which has grown considerably, to form the beginnings of the
muscles) has sent prolongations into each of them. About this
time, spaces (see fig. 31) are formed in the muscular mesoderm
which are all that remain of the true body cavity characteristic of
animals above the level of the jelly- fish, and in these spaces

the blood ultimately cir-
///^-y^^^^^^s^ culates.

The body next alters
somewhat in shape and
the three divisions of the
intestine approach one
another (see fig. 32)
previous to their junction.
As may be imagined dur-
ing these processes the
food-yolk has gradually
been used up and the
space which it occupied
taken by the internal
organs, which we have
mentioned.

In the last stages of
the development the ap-
pendages become larger
still, the heart makes its
appearance, segmentation
of the body is completed,
and except that the
seventh pair of walking
legs are as yet rudimen-
tary the woodlouse is
completed. It is only
after hatching that the
pair of legs mentioned, attain to their normal length.

The process of segmentation of the egg and the formation of
its layers lasts about a fortnight, while the completion of the
development proceeds much more rapidly, for another three
weeks bring it to an end.

After the first moult or change of skin the last pair of

-ffeazt

'erlicafam.

fo /V777L

dtyeslti>e pkmds

FIG. 33.- EMBRYO OF THE WOODLOUSE SHOWING TRACES
OF THE SEGMENTS (PorcelHo SCClber). AFTER ROULE.

gland,

•Inieslme

FIG. 34. — AN EMBRYO WOODLOUSE READY TO BE

hatched (PorcelHo scaber). after roule.

50 THE BRITISH W00DLICE.

walking legs makes its appearance, and Mr. James B. Casserley
[whose work one of us (75) has described elsewhere] found when
keeping a number of the common pill-woodlouse (Armadillidium
vulgare) in captivity that his specimens did not subsequently
change their skins more than once in the six months during
which he had them under observation. He also noted that the
crustaceans go on growing after they are sexually mature. As
his specimens grew older, Mr. Casserley noticed that their colour
became darker, and a curious point recorded by him is that two
examples of the same age may change their skins at the same
time, and while one may have afterwards nearly twice as many
markings, on the other very few at all will be seen. The time
required for the growth of a w r oodlouse from the size of a pin's
head to that of an adult example — say three-quarters-of-an inch
long — must be fairly considerable, taking into account the fact
that any appreciable increase in size can only occur at a moult
and Mr. Casserley's observations as to the infrequency of the
process in Armadillidium vulgare.

Habits and Economic Considerations. — The con-
struction of the breathing organs of woodlice, and the necessity
which exists for these to be kept moist, restricts the habitats of
the animals considerably. Woodlice are found under stones and
logs, beneath the bark of dead and rotten trees, among decaying
vegetable matter as well as living grass and moss in damp or
wet situations. When looking for some of the common species
under the bark of fallen trees it is surprising to notice that the
crustaceans may be entirely absent from many trunks, while
when another is examined which seems to differ very slightly, if
at all, in condition or situation, they are found in swarms. There
is no doubt but that the habits of woodlice would well repay the
attention of naturalists, who are now recognizing that besides
anatomy as such, and the classification which a knowledge of
structure permits, there is the equally important consideration of
the creatures as they live their own life and affect that of others.
It is not our object to give a detailed account of the ecology of
British woodlice, but rather to provide a basis from which it may
be approached. Nevertheless a few general remarks may not
come amiss. Many points in the life-history of woodlice may
no doubt be learned by keeping them in captivity and there is

THE BRITISH WOODLICE. 51

just sufficient difficulty in doing this successfully to give an
interest to the matter.

Apart from a supply of proper food, we take it that the chief
object to be attained is the provision of the amount of moisture
required by the particular species under examination, together
with a sufficient supply of air.

A great many interesting observations can be thus carried
out, such as those of Mr. Casserley, to which allusion has already
been made. The process of moulting for instance is well worth
watching, and although specimens with half their coat changed
may be found in remote corners, yet the whole course of the
moult can be seen much better in the case of captive woodlice.
The following account is taken from Mr. Casserley's description
(75) of what happens in the case of Avmadillidium vulgare: — The
approach of the moult is indicated by the appearance of a white
border on each segment of the body, which becomes gradually
more marked, while at the same time the animal is seen to be
less active and often makes a small burrow in which to hide.
Sometimes a sheltered corner against a stone is looked upon as
affording sufficient protection, but,in either case each woodlouse
keeps to the place originally chosen. About ten days after the
white lines have become visible the animal appears to be divided
into two. Its skin is becoming loose and little movement can
take place at the joints of its body with the exception of that
between the fourth and fifth thoracic segments where the skin
will ultimately break. The woodlouse spends a day or two in
this condition and then, by suddenly walking forward, frees itself
from the covering of the hinder portion of its body The three
last pairs of walking legs are carefully pulled out from the old
skin, which now appears perfectly white, and at the same time
the lining of the hind portion of the alimentary canal (hind gut)
is also shed. After putting the tender half of his body well into
his corner or burrow the woodlouse proceeds to eat the part of
his skin that he has cast. The creature has now a very odd
appearance. His front half with the exception of the white
edges is as it was before, the rest of him instead of a light slaty
blue, and is very soft as well as proportionately a little larger.

In three days or so the tail end becomes hard and attains the
normal colour. Then the old skin from the front half is pushed
off and the creature becomes practically defenceless, so much

52 THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

so in fact, that any of his species that happen to find him will
attack him and eat all his front half, rejecting, however, his now
hardened tail-end.

Provided that the moulting woodlouse has survived (and in
captivity, to ensure this, he must be isolated), after three days
his jaws will be sufficiently hardened to allow of his eating, and
usually he first of all devours the second half of his cast skin.
The operation of moulting does not occupy quite so long a time
in the case of young examples. Specimens half-an-inch long do
not moult more than once in six months and show but little
increase in size after the process.

Woodlice do not appear to live on either animal or vegetable
food alone, but adopt a mixed diet. It is, however, owing to
their attacks upon cultivated plants that the creatures are
looked upon as pests by the horticulturalist. The animals feed
either in the night or in the very early morning, on seedlings,
orchid tubers, mushrooms, or anything that comes to hand. Few
of the accounts, however, of their ravages, mention that the
crustaceans have been caught absolutely in the act of doing
the damage ascribed to them. Some careful inquiries have
nevertheless enabled us to discover several observers who
have watched woodlice feeding. Mr. F. V. Theobald, of Wye
College, and one of the students at Swanley Horticultural
College are among the number. The former has also given us an
account of the methods, out of many tried, which he has found
most successful for getting rid of the crustaceans. Out of doors
trapping with moss, sacking or horse-dung is best. In glass
houses, fumigation with hydro-cyanic acid gas has cleared them
out, and poison baits, especially potatoes cut and soaked in
white arsenic, have done some good. Stable manure is especially
favourable to these creatures, particularly when it is used " long ":
in this condition it should therefore be avoided.

It is interesting to note how the w r oodlice in winter simply
remain where they happen to be so long as there is sufficient
moisture, though they are ready to run about as rapidly for a
time as in summer, should they happen to be disturbed.

No doubt many points of inter-relation between woodlice
and other animals remain to be discovered. Mr. John W. Odell
tells us that on Exmoor, in the open, he found no Armadillidia,
though other forms occurred under nine out of every ten stones

THE BRITISH WOODLICE, 53

that he turned over, and here the smaller species of ants also
abounded. Close to stone walls Avmadillidia were to be seen
to the exclusion of all other genera, and this state of affairs was
ascribed by Mr. Odell to the presence of swarms of the large
wood-ants which he considers would make short work of any
woodlice that could not protect themselves by rolling up.

We ought not to conclude this account without mentioning
the fact that w T oodlice once played an important part in medicine.

Doctor Fernie (28) gives some interesting extracts with
regard to the hoglouse and the woodlouse. The latter he
seems to have identified quite correctly as Oniscus asellus. He
calls the former, however, indiscriminately, " the common
armadillo " (which is the old name for the pill- woodlice now
known as Avinadillidium), " the pill millipede " and " Glonuvis
inavginata" The last two names are those of another creature,
not a crustacean, which when it is rolled up can be very easily
mistaken for an Avinadillidium , though, when it uncurls, it will be
seen to have many more than seven pairs of legs. The local
appellations applied to the hog-louse by Doctor Fernie, and his
remarks with regard to its commonness, tend to show that it
is Avinadillidium vulgave, to which he really refers, and the use
of which in medicine was commonly general.

Hog-lice were prescribed for scrofulous diseases and
obstructions of the liver and digestive organs, among other
things, and the London College of Physicians directed that
the creatures should be prepared by suspending them in a thin
canvas bag placed within a covered vessel over the steam of hot
spirit or wine, so that being killed by the spirit they might
become friable. Hog-lice and Wood-lice were also administered
alive, while the former were also put down the throats of cows
"to promote the restoration" of their cud, hence their name
of " cud-worm." There seems to be considerable evidence that
even in modern times Wood-lice have had considerable remedial
effect which depends upon an alkalescent fluid contained in
them.

Local Names. — Among the local names by which these
creatures are known are those of "sow bug," "lucre pig"
(Berkshire), " carpenter " and " chiselhog " (Berkshire).
Doctor Fernie (28) gives a number of others . — " thrush-louse,"
u tiggyhog," "cheslip," " kitchenball," " chiselbob," " lugdor,"

54 THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

'palmer," and "cudworm." In the eastern counties the same
writer notes that they are known as " old-sows " or " St.
Anthony's hogs " while the Welsh call them " little grey-hogs,"
"the little old women of the wood" or "grammar-sows,"
grammar signifying a shrivelled up old dame. Oniscus asellus
was sometimes called " socchetre," "church louse," and
" chinch."

Methods of Collection and Preservation. — Woodlice
should be collected straightway into tubes or bottles half filled
with 30 per cent, methylated spirit. 3 Woodlice dropped into
this weak spirit become gradually narcotised and die, and they
remain limp enough for purposes of examination or to allow, of
their legs and antennae being set out during the process of
mounting. Specimens to be kept permanently should be placed
in 70 per cent, alcohol. For storage purposes the specimens of
each species from a given locality should be put together into a
small flat bottomed tube such as are used for pillules by
apothecaries or specially made for natural history purposes. A
paper label on which the name, locality, date of capture and any
other necessary particulars have been written with dark lead
pencil, is not affected by the spirit. The tubes may be corked,
though if not frequently examined all the spirit may evaporate,
and cause the specimens to be spoilt. A safer method is to plug
the tubes with cotton w T ool and keep all those containing a given
species or specimens from a particular locality beneath the
surface of spirit in a large wide-mouthed bottle, into which first
of all some cotton wool has been put to prevent the tubes from
coming into sudden contact with the glass at the bottom. For
show purposes in museums, specimens taken direct from 30
per cent, spirit should be mounted on slips of opal glass by
means of gum-tragacanth which has been powdered and shaken
up in spirit before having water added to it. The slips can be
exhibited in glass tubes, six inches high by one across, or in
narrow stoppered museum jars. A variation of the method is to
mount the animals on clear glass and to place behind them
another strip of any colour that may be preferred.

3 It should be pointed out that the methylated spirit now sold in the shops contains
mineral naptha and goes milky on the addition ot water. Permission can be obtained from
Somerset House to buy what is still called " ordinary methylated spirit," but at present five
gallons has to be purchased at one time.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

55

Classification. — The various genera of woodlice are con-
nected together so closely, by intermediate forms, that their
division into families is to a very great extent, arbitrary. Bate
and Westwood described but a single family Oniscidae (i),
though they distinguished two sub-families : — Ligiinae, which
included the forms with many joints to the flagellum of the
antenna, and Oniscinae, which contained the rest.

Since then the pill-woodlice have been thought by some, to
be sufficiently different from the other genera to warrant their
separation, and three families namely, Ligiidae, Oniscidae, and
Armadillidae have been recognized, as for instance by Dr.
Scharff (63).

A fourth family — Trichoniscidae— has been added by
Professor G. O. Sars, who in his Crustacea of Norway (59)
alludes to the division of the tribe into the sections Ligiae and
Onisci and has adopted the following classification : —

Order— ISOPODA
Tribe— ONISCOIDA.

Family I. — Ligiidae.

Ligia.
Ligidium.

Family II. — Trichoniscid^.

Trichoniscus.

Triclwniscoides.

Haploplithalmus.

Family III. — Oniscid^;.
Oniscus.
Philoscia.
Platyarthnis.
Porcellio.
Metoponorthus.
Cyl/sticus

Family IV.-

-Armadillidii/e.

Armadillidium.

All the genera described by Professor Sars are represented
in the British Islands.

Below is a scheme of classification and synopsis of the
characters of British genera of woodlice which we have compiled
in order to render easy the determination of the genus to which
any particular specimen may belong.

56

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION AND SYNOPSIS
OF GENERIC CHARACTERS.

Order— ISOPODA.
Tribe— ONIStTOIDA.

Section /.— LIGIiE.

The Two Divisions of the Tail Appendages alike in Shape.
(A.) — Flagellum with 10 or more joints; tail appendages
wholly visible ; head without lateral lobes

(i.) — Abdomen broad ; body large ; habitat

the sea -shore -

( 2 — Abdomen narrow ; habitat wet moss -

(B.) — Flagellum with less than 10 joints ; head with

small lateral lobes, tail appendages partly covered

(3.) — Abdomen narrow ; eyes compound ;

flagellum usually with .nore than 3

joints ....

(^.) — Abdomen narrow ; eyes simple or want-
ing ; flagellum with 4 joints -
(5.) — Abdomen broad (comparatively) ; eyes
simple ; back with longitudinal ;
ridges ; flagellum with 3 joints

Section //.— ONISCI.
The Outer Divisions of the Tail Appendages Bvoadev than the Inner.
(A.) — Tail appendages projecting when the animal- is
walking ------

(a.) — Unable to roll up into a complete ball.

(6.) — Flagellum with 3 joints ; abdomen

broad ; head, with lateral lobes

(7.)— Flagellum with 3 joints; abdomen

narrow ; head without lateral lobes -

(8.) — Flagellum with 1 joint ; eyes wanting ;

abdomen broad ; habitat, ant's nests

(9.) — Flagellum with 2 joints ; abdomen

broad ; frontal lobe projecting

(10.)— Flagellum with 2 joints; abdomen

narrow ....

(b.)— Able to roll up into a complete ball.

(11.)— Flagellum with 2 joints ; antennae

folded together over the thorax when

the animal is rolled up into a ball

(B.^ — Tail appendages not projecting when the animal

walking .....

(12.) — Flagellum with 2 joints ; antennae
hidden or carried at the sides of the
head when the animal is rolled up
into a ball - Arwadillidium.

- LlGIIDAK.

Ligia.
Li g id him.

Trichoniscid^.

Trichoniscus.

Trichoniscoides.

Haploph thalm us .

Oniscid^e.

Oniscus.

Philoscia.

Platvarthrus.

Poi-cellio.

Metoponorthus.

Cvlisticus.

Akmadii.lidiid^.

[To be continued.]

BRITISH WOODLICE.

llssKX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PI. I

LlGlA OCEANICA Linnc. THE QUAY-LOUSE.
Length, two to three centimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt

BRITISH W'onitLU'K.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., II. II.

MM

LlGIDIUM HYPNORUM Cuvier.

Length, nine millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. VV. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PI, III.

fti^W

TrichonisC( t s pusillus Brandt.

Length, four millimetres.

Charles Sillein, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOOD LICK.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PI. IV

Trichoniscus vividus Koch.

Length, eight millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt,

BRITISH W00DL1CE.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PL V

Trichoniscus roseus Koch.

Length, five millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PI. VI

Trichoniscoides albidus Budde-Lund.

Length, four millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

/IRITIS If WOO DUCK.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PI. VII.

Haplophthalmus mengii Zaddach.

Length, three to four millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PI. VI II.

/

Haplophthalmus danicus Budde-Lund.

Length, three to four millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOOD LICE.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PL IX.

^;r^-

jgm

>*»v

f (m\

Oniscus asellus Linne (The common slater).
Length, sixteen millimetres.

Charles Sillein, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

Local Publications

BY

Benham 6 Co., 24, High Street, Colchester.

THE ESSEX REVIEW. Published Quarterly. Edited by Edward

A. Fitch and Miss C. Fell Smith. Demy 8vo. 64 pages, is. 6d.

post free. A fully illustrated Quarterly Review ot all that is of per-
manent interest in Essex. Established 1892. Back Volumes may be had

bound in cloth, price 7s. 6d. each, excepting the earlier volumes, which

are 21s. each.

Annual subscription, if paid in advance, 5s., including free delivery.
"The best of the county magazines."
THE RED PAPER BOOK OF COLCHESTER. Transcribed

and Translated by \V. Gurnev Benham. Crown 4to. Fully Indexed

A volume crowded with local information hitherto unpublished. 25s. nett.
GUIDE TO COLCHESTER. By W. Gurnev Benham. Crown 8vo.

140 pp. Over 100 illustrations. 6d. ; by post 8d.
COLCHESTER DIRECTORY AND ALMANAC, id. ; by post 3d.

Cloth 6d. ) by post 8d.
COLCHESTER OYSTER FEAST. Its History and Toast Lists.

Profusely illustrated. An amusing and unique volume. Demy 4to.

5s. nett. By post 5s. 4d.
ESSEX BALLADS, and other Poems. By Chakles E. Benham.

Third Edition. Prefatory note by the Right Hon. the Countess of

Warwick, is. 6d. ; by post, is. 8d.
WILLIAM GILBERT, of COLCHESTER. A sketch of his Magnetic

Philosophy. By Chas. E. Bk.nham. 2s. nett. Post free 2s. 2d.
ANCIENT TOKENS of COLCHESTER. By Ernest N. Mason.

Fully illustrated descriptive, and historical account of the tokens issued in

Colchester in the 17th and 18th centuries. 5s. nett. By post 5s. 2d.
GUIDE TO COLCHESTER CASTLE. By Charles E. Benham,

8 illustrations. Demy 8vo., 6d. ; by post, ;d.
COLCHESTER NEW TOWN HALL. By Wilson Marriage

and \V. Gurnev Benham. Fully Illustrated. Demy 4to. Second

edition. 1900. 2s.; by post, 2s. jd.
COLCHESTER TOWN HALL. Illustrate J. Fcap, 8vo. 32 pages,

3d. ; by post 3£d.
OLD COLCHESTER. A few chapters for young Colchester. By

Charles E. Benham. Illustrated, is. ; bv post, is 3d.
AMONG THE TOMBS OF COLCHESTER. Full account of

local monuments, tablets, epitaphs, &c. 6d. ; by post, 7d.
ANCIENT LEGENDS CONNECTED WITH THE ARMS OF

COLCHESTER. By W. Gurnev Benham. Illustrated explanation

of the Arms, with the Stories of St. Helen and King Coel. Demy 8vo.

3d. ; by post, 4d.
TWO LEGENDS OF COLCHESTER. By Alfred P. Wire.

Illustrated by W. Gurnev Benham. Demy 8vo. 3d. ; by post, 3'jfd.
OLD KING COEL. By Charles E. Benham. Fcap. 8vo. Price 2d. ;

by post, }d.
THE TENDRING HUNDRED IN THE OLDEN TIME.

By ]. Yei.loly Watson, F.G.S., J.P. 5s. ; by post, 5s. 4d.
NOTES on the GEOLOGY nnd ARCHEOLOGY of WALTON,

CLACTON and DISTRICT. By H. Slopes, F.G.S., and W. H.

Dalton, F.G.S., 6d. ; by post, jd
MALDON. By Edward A. Fitch, ex-Mayor of Maldon. Illustrated.

1888. Fcap. 8vo. Paper cover. Price 3d. , by post, 3|d.
KING COEL POSTCARDS. Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, 6d.
THE ESSEX LABOURER, DRAWN FROM LIFE. By W. G. B.

Illustrations. 4to., 6d. ; bv post 6^.
COLCHESTER WORTHIES ^POSTCARDS. Gilberd, Harsnett,

Audley, and Grimston. Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, id.

THE WINTER SESSION OF
THE CLUB.

The members and friends of the Club are reminded that the
Winter Session will commence on Saturday, October 28th,
1905, at the Essex Museum of Natural History, Romford Road,
Stratford, Essex.

The Secretaries will be glad to have intimation of Papers
and Exhibitions intended to be brought before the Club
Early notices of this kind would greatly facilitate the arrange-
ments for the meeting.

The meeting-room is provided with an excellent electric
lantern for the display of lantern slides.

W. COLE

Hon. Secretaries.
B. G. COLE "

Springfield,"
'E-pping Road,

Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY.
Price to Non-Members, 5s. per part, post free.

Part II., Vol. XIV] [JULY, 1905.

The

Essex Naturalist:

BEING THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ESSEX FIELD CLUB,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Honorary Secretary and Curator.

PAGE

The Beetles of the Eastern Counties. By Claude Mort.ev, F.E.S. 57

Sulphate of Lime in Essex Soils and Sub-Soils. By T. S.

Dvmond, F.I.C. . . .. .. .. .. 62

Fungi in Pairs. By Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., A.L.S., &c. .. 64

The Essex Field Club. Reports of Meetings. January 28th to

April 8th, 1905 .. .. .. .. .. ^b

Notes. — Original and Selected .. .. .. .. 71

[Inserted^ -Second instalment (6) of the 25 Plates by Mr. C. SiUem\

for the illustration of the Monograph on the British WaodUce\\

The Authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinions contained in
their respective pupers.

PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB. AT THF, ESSEX MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY,, STRATFORD, ESSEX.

Entered Stationers' Hall.] [Published October, 1905.

Editorial communications to W. Cole, " Springfield,," Buckhurst Hill, Essex,
and Advertisements to Messrs. Benj-lam and Co., Printers, Colchester.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB.

Membership of the Club. — Information respecting
Membership and the work of the Club, with forms of proposal,
will be sent on application to the Hon. Secretaries, at the Head-
quarters.

The Essex Museum of Natural History (Romford Road,
Stratford, Essex) is designed and arranged as a Local Museum
for the Count)-, and as an Educational Museum for use of the
general public, students and schools. Included in the scheme
is a Lecture-room for Demonstrations and the aid of a growing
Library of some of the most useful monographs of British
Geology, Botany, and Zoology, for the use of Students in the
Museum. Curator, W. Cole. Assistant, Henry Whitehead.

The Epping Forest Museum, established by permission
■of the Corporation of London in Queen Elizabeth's Hunting
Lodge, Chingford, Essex, is devoted to the elucidation of the
Natural History and Antiquities of Epping Forest, and as a
centre for Nature-study for schools and young naturalists.
Honorary Curators, W. Cole, B. G. Cole, and H. A. Cole.

The Libraries of the Club include works on Natural
History, Geology, and Antiquities, with a special department
of books, pamphlets, and MSS. relating to Epping Forest.
Honorary Libvarian, Thomas W. Reader, F.G.S.

The Photographic and Pictorial Survey of Essex has
been founded for the preservation of photographs, pictures and
maps, etc., illustrative of the topography, antiquities, social
habits, natural history, etc., of the County. Complete sets of the
i-inch and the 6-inch Ordnance Surveys and the Geological
Survey of Essex, have been obtained to aid in this work. The
collections will be stored in the Essex Museum, and will be
available for reference on application to the Curator. Hon.
Secretary, Victor Taylor, Hurstleigh, Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

57

THE BEETLES OF THE EASTERN COUNTIES. 1

By CLAUDE MORLEY, F.E.S., &c.

WHEN I last year(i904)wrotemycomparativeaccountof the
the Coleopterous fauna of Suffolk and Norfolk I had had
no opportunity of studying the very excellent catalogue of the
Essex beetles published in the Victoria History of that county. This
I have recently done with some care, and the results, as connected
and interwoven with those of a similar study of the neighbouring
counties, may be of interest to Essex Coleopterists, and will
indicate the directions in which they may most advantageously
strike out with a view to augmenting their list.

Rich as are both Suffolk and Norfolk in coast sands and salt
marshes, those of Essex are of yet greater extent, and of a
conformation to shelter a broader fauna ; in the way of woods
and forests Norfolk is the worst off, and the small patches of
ancient timber at Staverton and Fakenham in Suffolk cannot be
compared with the large tract of land still covered by Epping
Forest. As regards the light lands, however, I do not think
Essex so well equipped as her northern sisters ; certainly she can
boast no inland dunes and sandhills such as those of the Breck
District.

My personal acquaintance with the beetles of Essex is so
slight that it will hardly be wearisome to notice it here. In
September, 1893, Silpha atrata was very common at Maidon ; in
January, 1896, Homalium iopterum, Rhagium inquisitor and Scolytus
intvicatus^ were found at Chingford Hatch. At Harwich early in
June, 1897, Bembidium ephippium, Dyschirius salinus* Cercyon
aquations* Philonthus ventralis, Heterocerus obsoletus and Codiosoma
spadix turned up ; and at Wood Street, Epping, in May, 1902,
were Anchomenus gracilis, Bembidium lunulatum Fourc.,* Hydrous
caraboides and Balaninus villosus, with B. tessellatus t at Halstead.
In July of the same year, and again in April of the following, I
had several delightful days' collecting with my dear friend Mr.
Alfred Beaumont, who had the honour (with the exception of
Lord Avebury and two others) of being the oldest Fellow, among
500, of the Entomological Society ; and of whose death I have
to-day regretfully heard. We met with several nice beetles at
Gosfield, near Halstead, the best being Bolitochara lucida,* Liodes

1 Written ist March, 1905.

2 Trans. Norf. Nat. Sue, 1904, pp. 706-721.

58 THE BEETLES OF THE EASTERN COUNTIES.

orbicularis, Rhizophagus perforates, Tryphillus suturalis, Dyphyllus
lunatus* Agrilus laticornis,* Cis kispidus, Strophosomus vetusus, Hypeva
plant aginis, Onthophilus striatus,* Mycaeta hirta, Monotonia quadri-
cottis,* and Stilicns fragilis.* I am surprised, in comparing these
meagre records with the Victoria History list, to find among them
no less than ten additions to the county list ; these are marked
with an asterisk.

Since my enumeration of our Coleoptera last year, thirty-
three species have been added to the " Coleoptera of Suffolk," 3
and Mr. James Edwards, F.E.S., has added seven species in the
Transactions of the Norfolk Naturalists' Society, 1904, pp. 744-5,
to the 1,796 species which he had previously noticed from
Norfolk. 4 A comparison of the Essex list with these is most
instructive — all the following one hundred and seventy-four
species are hitherto quite unknown to occur in either of the more
northern counties. I have taken the opportunity of appending
a comparative table, illustrating the distribution of the various
groups in the Eastern Counties. The only species I have
excluded from the Essex list is Brachinus sclopeta, a. very doubtful
insect as British, which should be placed in the same category
as Chrysomela gloriosa in Suffolk and Cardiop horns riificollis in
Norfolk; nor have I included my own records, mentioned above,
in so unofficial a review as the present.

BEETLES PECULIAR TO ESSEX.

GEODEPHAGA Hydropoms rivalis

Dyschirius cxtensus Agabus biguttatus
Stenolophus elegans

Acupalpus computus PALPICORNIA

Anisodactylus pccciloides Paracymus nigro-ceneus

Pterostichus inaqualis Spercheus emarginatus

Anchomenus atratus Ochthebius ceneus

„ junc cits Hydraeua nigrita

Benibidium paludosum

Trechus lapidosus BRA CHEL YTRA

Microglossa gentilis

HYDRADEPHAGA Oxypoda cxoleta
Hydropoms celatus ,, lentula

3 The Coleoptrra of Suffolk, by Claude Morley, F.E.S., &c. Plymouth, J. H. Keys,
Printer, Whimple Street, 3s. 6d.

4 Fauna and Flora of Norfolk, part xii. : Coleoptera. By James Edwards, F.E.S.
{Trans. Norf. Soc, 1893, P- 427-50S); "Additions," lib. cit. 1S99, pp. 515-527.

THE BEETLES OF THE EASTERN COUNTIES.

59

Oxypoda vecondita
,, sped ab ills
,, vittata
,, ■watevhousei
Stichoglossa semivufa
Thiasophila Inqu Ulna
Ischnoglossa covticina
Oca lea badia
■Calodera vipavla
Notothccta confusa
Homalota czgva

,, autumnalis
„ cadavevina
„ canes ecus
,, cinnamopteva
,, covvina
,, decipiens
,, gemina
,, indubia
,, pilicornis
„ silvicola
,, sordid id a
,, x ant ho pus
'Gyvophaena lucldula
, , stricUda

Eurysa laticollis
Oligota flavicornis
,, pusillima
Conosoma pedicularis
Tachinus clongatns
Quedlus nmbvinus
Philonthus addendus
„ fuscus
,, punctus
„ splcndidulus

,, thevmarum

Cafius seviceus
Lathvoblum punctatum
Medon fuscula
obsoleta

Simiiis filifovmis
Dianous ccBVidescens
St e mis canescens

,, fuscicovnis

,, plcipennis
Oxytelus mavitlmus
A cvognathus mandibularis
Deleastev dichvous
Acidota cvuentata
Micvalymma bvevipenne

CLAVICORN1A.

Bryaxis ivatevhousei
Euplectus piceus
Scydmanus godavti

„ powevi

Eiitheia plicata
Agathidiurd convexum
Anisotoma cuvvipes

,, oblong a
Hydnobius stvigosus
Colon sevvlpes
Histev quadvimaculatus
Abvaeus gvanulum
Tvichoptevyx ambigua

„ bvevicovnis

Actldium coavctatum
Hypevaspis veppensis
Scymnus minimus
Phalacrus bvisouti
Amphotis mavginata
Thalycra sevicea
Ips quadviguttata
Ditoma cvenata
Cicones vaviegatus
Laemophloeus blmaculatus

„ puslllus

Silvanus unidentatus
Monotonia fovmlcctovnm

„ quadiifoveolata

6o

THE BEETLES OF THE EASTERN COUNTIES.

Monotama spinicollis
Lathridius car hiatus
Covticaria transvevsalis
Cryptophagus bicolor
Ccrnoscelis ferruginea
Atomaria atra

„ fimetarii

„ versicolor
Megatoma and at a
Heterocerus sericans, Kies.

LAMELLICORNIA
Onthophagus nutans
Aphodius conspurcatus

„ livid us

„ tessulaius

,, zenkeri
Heptaulacus testu dinar ius

STERNOXI
Throscus carinifrons

„ obtusus
Elater miniatus
,, pvcBiista
„ s an guin olenitis
Agviotes sovdidus
Corymbites pectinicornis

LONGICORNIA

Callidium sanguineum
Obrium cantharinum
Molorchus minor
Leptura scut ell 'at a
Strangalia attenuata
„ rev est it a

PHYTOPHAGA
Orsodacna cerasi
,, hneola

Bruchus luteicovms
Clythra quadvipunctata
Chrysoviela marginata
Thyamis absinthii
Hermeophaga mercurialis
Plectroscelis aridula

HETEROMERA

Alphitophagus ^.-pustulatus
Tribolium confusum
Clinocara tetratoma
Abdera quadrifjsciata
Palorus depressus
Lissodema quadripustulata
Pyrochroa coccinea
Mordellistena brevicanda
Anthicus angustatus

MALACODERMA

Meloe cicatricosus

Podabrus alpinus

,, rugosus

Axinotarsus pulicarius

Dolichosoma lineare

RHYNCHOPHORA

Haplocnem us nigricornis

Apion IcBvicolle

Opilo mollis

„ livescerum

„ schonherri

TEREDILIA

Trachyphloeus alter nans

Dorcatoma flavicornis

Omias mollinus

Anitys rubens

Sit ones cambricus

Cis alni

Liosoma oblongulum

„ mi cans

Erirhimis scirpi

Ennearthron affine

Bagous argillaceus

THE BEETLES OF THE EASTERN COUNTIES.

61

Bagous cylindvus

,, subcavinatus
Sibinia arenavice
Mecinus collavis
Coeliodes exiguus

Ceuthovhynchus vevvucatus
Hylastes angustatus
Tomicus nigvitns
Xylebovus saxeseni
Bvachytarsus vavius

Taking the time-honoured groups individually, the following
table will show at a glance the relative distribution of species, as
far as is at present ascertained, throughout the Eastern Counties.

GROUP.

ESSEX,

NORFOLK.

SUFFOLK.

' BRITAIN.

Geodephaga

173

I96

191

3IO

Hydradephaga

60

95

82

I30

Palpicornia

64

74

74

95

Brachelytra

385

371

429

778

Clavicornia

302

337

33*

682

Lamellicornia

46

56

58

90

Sternoxi ...

33

36

35

76

Malacoderma

50

58

57

91

Teredilia...

28

24

32

57

Longicornia

34

33

32

59

Phytophaga

142

173

185

256

Heteromera

68

57

69

118

Rhynchophora

Total ...

264

293

3i8

526

1,649

1,803

1,900

j

3,268

62

SULPHATE OF LIME IN ESSEX SOILS AND
SUBSOILS.

By T. S. DYMOND, F.I.C.

[Read January 28th, 1905]

IN his last Presidential address to the Essex Field Club, Mr.
F. W. Rudler traced the existence of Selenite in certain clay
strata to the oxidation of Pyrites in the London-clay, and the
reaction of the resulting sulphuric acid with carbonate of lime r
by which sulphate of lime is formed. The sulphate of lime
crystallizes slowly from solution at the ordinary temperature in
the form of selenite. I wish to suggest in this note that there
is another possible source for the selenite, and at the same time
briefly to discuss the practical bearing of the question upon Essex
agriculture.

The selenite crystals appear to be most abundantly found in
certain superficial clay strata overlying the London-clay. In
sinking shallow wells at Upminster and other places in South
Essex, deposits of clay loaded with selenite are sometimes met
with. 1 The crystals are found in star like masses, each ray of
which consists of characteristic twin crystals superimposed
on each other. In the same part of the County, a dry bank
under a thick hedge is often found to be encrusted with a white
efflorescence of sulphate of lime, pointing to its abundance in the
surface soil ; if a drying wind occurs after rain, the surface of an
arable field will appear white for the same reason, and the farmer
finds the soil " capped " and hard. The water obtained from
wells sunk into gravelly pockets of the London-clay is often
excessively hard, the hardness being partly due to sulphate of
lime. In one such water from Wickford I found the permanent
hardness was equal to 93 parts of sulphate of lime per 100,000,
and another from Ingrave to 1 12 parts. In such waters, however,
part of the hardness is invariably due to sulphate of magnesia.

That such excessive quantities of sulphate of lime are not
found associated with the Boulder-clay is sufficiently explained
by its permeability to water. The rain water draining through
the Boulder-clay dissolves from the surface and carries with it
the sulphate of lime, and the water issuing from springs at the
outcrop of the underlying gravel, contains appreciable, but not
excessive, quantities of the salt. Through the London-clay
water cannot easily percolate, and percolation is rather upwards

1 Similar deposits were struck in cutting the new Woodford and Ilford railway.

SULPHATE OF LIME IN ESSEX SOILS AND SUBSOILS.

63

through the superficial layers in order to replace water evaporated
from the surface soil. When this occurs the sulphate of lime is
left behind, either as an efflorescence on the surface or, it seems
possible, as crystals of selenite in the subsoil.

In considering the source of the sulphate of lime in shallow
wells and superficial strata of the London-clay, it will be necessary
to enquire to what extent sulphate of lime exists in the surface
soils of Essex. In conjunction with my former colleague, Mr.
Frank Hughes, now of the Khedivial Agricultural Society of
Egypt, I analyzed for sulphate some twenty Essex soils. The
results of these analyses are expressed as sulphuric acid (SO s ) per
cent. ; one per cent, of sulphuric acid is equal to 17 per cent, of
sulphate of lime.

Sulphuric

Sulphuric

Locality.

Acid.

Local Hi/.

Acid.

Bromley

•062

Orsett

•O50

Bulphan

•030

Great Oakley

•048

Burnham

. . -080

Ramsden

•080

Cressing

•028

Saffron Walden

(I)

'093

Dunton

•028

Saffron Walden

t»)

•079

El instead

•• -043

St. Osyth . .

•043

Gosfield

•060

Tendring

(1)

•035

Margaretting

•056

Tendring

(2)

•050

Mucking

. . -029

Thaxted

(0

•040

North Ockendon

•039
Average

Thaxted
.. -051.

(2)

•045

Taking the top 9 inches of soil to weigh 3,000,000 lbs. per
acre, the average quantity of sulphate of lime in the surface soil
amounts to 2,610 lbs. The drainage through naturally or
artificially well-drained land in a year of average rainfall in
Essex probably amounts to 150,000 gallons per acre. From
analyses of surface drainage waters the sulphate of lime contained
in such a quantity of drainage water would amount to nearly
200 lbs., so that in a period of thirteen years the whole of the
sulphate of lime would be exhausted.

Sulphate is as necessary an ingredient of plant food as
phosphate. Taking the average produce of an Essex farm, an
amount of sulphate will be used by crops each year equal to 44.
lbs. of sulphate of lime per acre. The question may well be
asked whether, in view of the exhaustion by drainage of the
sulphate of the soil, Essex soils are not deficient in this ingredient
of plant food. A series of field experiments have been carried
out_by the Essex Education Committee on the subject, but it

64 FUNGI IN PAIRS.

has been found that, with the exception of a gross-feeding crop
like cabbages, or a crop specially rich in albuminoid like red clover,
none of the ordinary crops of the farm responds to sulphate
manuring. In spite of loss by drainage therefore a supply of
sulphate in the soil, sufficient for most crops, is maintained.

There are two sources of supply of sulphate in the soil. In
the first place, Berthellot and Andre shewed that the total
amount of sulphur in the soil was nearly eight times that in the
form of sulphate, the greater part being in the form of sulphur
•compounds produced by the decay of vegetable matter. Mr.
Hughes and myself found that these in the presence of certain
micro-organisms were converted by atmospheric oxidation into
sulphuric acid. In the second place the supply of sulphate is
maintained by rain. At Chelmsford the sulphuric acid thus
supplied in a year of average rainfall was found to amount to
50 lbs. per acre, i.e. more than the average crop could require.

The sulphuric acid, w 7 hether produced by fermentation in the
soil or supplied by rain, combines with the lime of the soil, pro-
ducing sulphate of lime. It is owing to this constant exhaustion
of the lime of the soil that dressings of lime have to be applied
from time to time, and in the absence of such dressings on London-
clay soil the land becomes impossible to cultivate. We may
suppose that the liming of land has been carried on for centuries.
Is it not conceivable that a part of the sulphate of lime that
hardens the water, and crystallizes out as selenite in the super-
ficial strata of the London-clay, may be due to the inter-action of
sulphuric acid and lime in the surface soil ?

FUNGI IN PAIRS.

By M. C. COOKE, LL.D., M.A., A.L.S., &c.

THE discovery of specimens of Poly poms nidulans growing on
a tree near Loughton Station, at the last Fungus Foray,
has reminded me of several instances in which two species of
Fungi, that are closely allied, appear to be good and
characteristic species in their extreme forms, but approximate
so closely in other instances that it is almost impossible, some-
times, to determine to which of the two species the specimens
should be referred. Polyporus nidulans ' v Fr.) has its fellow in
Polypovus nitilans (Fr.), and the likeness is occasionally so great
that some authors have regarded them as varieties of one species.

FUNGI IN PAIRS. 65

Amongst Agarics there are undoubtedly Amanita phalloides
(Fries.) and Amanita mappa (Bat.) which may be distinguished
from each other in their common forms, but where a large
number come together, there will often be found specimens
which could not with certainty be referred to either species.
Then again there are Clitopilns ovcella (Bull) and Clitopilus
pvunulus (Scop.), which approach each other so closely in some
forms as to justify those mycologists in their doubts, who
consider them one species. Nor can we forget such species as
Copvinus comatus (Fr.) and Copvinus ovalis (Sch.), although the
comatus form is comparatively permanent. Some of the species
of Russnla are distinct enough in their typical forms, but are
very puzzling when their characteristics are reduced to the
lowest point, and the species seem to coalesce. This is often the
case with Russnla citvina (Gill) and Russnla granulosa (Cooke)
from which Russnla ochroleuca (Pers.) is chiefly distinguished by
the rugose greyish stem. Then again Russnla emetica (Fries) and
the red forms of Russnla fvagilis (Pers) become critical when the
flesh of the former does not appear reddish beneath the cuticle.
We need not allude to Hygvoplwvus lestus (Fries) and Hygvophorus
lioughtoni (B. and Br,), since no one will now contend against
their specific identity. If one might refer to such a genus as
Inocybe, which seems full of doubts, then Inocybe pyviodova (Pers.)
and Inocybe incavnata (Bres) are occasionally indistinguishable.
We can scarcely introduce Stvophavia squamosa (Fries.) and
Stvophavia thvausta (Kalch) as a case in point, because very few
persons regard them as distinct species. It would be easy to
multiply instances of this kind, but two species must not be
forgotten, if they are really distinct, and these are Pholiota
tevvigena (Fries.) and Pholiota cookei (Fries.). Surely if we are
right in our determination of the former, the latter is only a
slender variety. There are two or three species of Nolanea, with
a strong fishy odour, such as Naucovia piceus (Kalch) and
Nolanea pisciodova (Ces), often very distinct in appearance, but
occasionally very suspiciously alike. These are a few of the
" curiosities of mycology," or, we might call them " puzzles for
the curious," which will trouble the student, but should not
discourage him, but rather stimulate to a further and better
knowledge of the secrets of Isis, on whose statues of old was
inscribed the legend " I am all that has been, that shall be, and
no mortal has lifted the veil that covers me."

66

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB— REPORTS OF
MEETINGS.
THE 235th ORDINARY MEETING.
Saturday, famiary ~2$th, 1905.

This meeting was held as usual in the Technical Institute, Stratford, at
6.30 p.m., the President, Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., in the chair.

New Member. — Miss Eva Whitley, B.Sc, of 18, Westbourne Terrace,
Hyde Park, \V., was elected a member of the Club.

Recent Additions to the Museum.— Mr. \V. Cole exhibited a specimen
of Putorius hibernzcus, the Irish Stoat, which has been only recently added to the
British Fauna. For a long time it was regarded as a large weasel. It is remark-
able for not turning white in winter, as the Common Stoat so generally does.

Also fine specimens of the Wild Cat (Felis catus) and of Lepus timidus,
the Mountain Hare.

These specimens had been obtained and set up specially for the museum by
Messrs. Sherrin Bros., the Club's taxidermists.

Mr. Cole also showed a specimen of the Grey Shrike (La/iius excubitor)
employed by the Dutch hawk-catchers to give warning of the approach of a
hawk. This specimen had been presented by Mr. J. E Halting, F.L.S , to be
added to his fine collection illustrating the modern practice of Falconry, already
in the main hall of the Museum.

Mr. John Spiller, F.I.C., exhibited photographs showing the extraordinary
damage to the East Coast of England by weather and sea action during the
last Cew weeks, and made some explanatory remarks on the same.

Papers Read. — Mr. T. S. Dymond, F.C.S., read a paper entitled
" Sulphate of Lime in Essex Soils and Sub-Soils.'' The paper was illustrated by
a table showing the proportion of sulphuric acid in soils from 20 separate Essex
stations. {Ante p. 02.]

The President congratulated Mr. Dymond on his appointment to his new
but important post, that ol Inspector under the Board of Education, to advise on
matters of Education and of Nature-study in Rural Schools, and made some
remarks on points in the paper. Mr. Spiller also spoke on the subject.

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Dymond for his paper.

Mr. F. J. Chittenden, of the County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford, then
read a paper entitled " The Bog-Mosses (Sphagnacae) of Essex : a contribution to
a Floia of the County."

Mr. Chittenden's explanations Were accompanied by drawings on the black-
board, and by a set of Essex specimens of the group. The paper will be
published in the Essex Naturalist in due course.

A discussion on the paper took place, carried on by the President, Mr.
Barnard, the Author, and others, and Mr. Chittenden was cordially thanked for
a very interesting addition to the County Monographs already issued under the
auspices of the Club.

THE 236th ORDINARY MEETING.

Saturday, February 25th, 1905.
The fourth meeting of the winter session was held in the Technical Institute,
Stratford, at 6.30 p.m., the President, Mr. F. W. Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S., in the-
chair.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 6j

Death of Professor Howes. — The President said that the Council had
received with great regret the news of the death of Prof. G. B. Howes,
LL.D., D.Sc , F.R.S., &c, one of the Honorary Members of the Club. He
made some very interesting and appreciative remarks on the life and work of the
lamented scientist, and proposed that the meeting should unite with the Council
in recording their sense of the loss the Club had sustained, and that a letter of
condolence should be sent to Mrs. Howes by the Secretary. This was cordially
approved.

New Member.— Mr. Mark Wilks, 24, Lower Clapton Road, N.E., was
elected.

Nomination of Officers and New Members of Council. — In view
of the annual meeting, nominations of officers and members of Council were made
(See report of Annual Meeting on April 8th).

New Cockroach in Essex. — The Secretary exhibited on behalf of Mr. E.
C. Horrell, F.L.S., specimens of Leucophce,i surinamensis, which had occurred
in a garden near Chelmsford (See " Notes," E.N. Vol. XIII , p 365).

Injurious Fungi on Hornbeam Trees — Mr. Robert Paulson exhibited
some photographs he had made of twigs of Hornbeam attacked by Corticium
co?nede>is. This fungus does much harm, and Mr. Paulson made some remarks
on the life-history of the pest. He also showed a photograph of the " Witches'
Broom " caused by the attacks of Enviscns cai pini on hornbeams, and of
Stereum Itirsntum, found on old stumps.

Mr. Cole said that the late Miss Ormerod had described the Witches' Broom
as being caused by a Mite (Aearns), belonging to the Phytopti, in a paper in
volume x. (1S77) of The Entomologist (pp. 83-h), " Phytoptus of the Birch-
knots." Miss Ormerod traced the development of the infected buds, which grow
clustered together, and their abnormal growth in the course of years caused the
buds to expand from a small cluster to a great bunch of twigs sometimes as much
as a yard in diameter. Mr. Cole said that the matter evidently needed investiga-
tion. Of course it was possible that the " Witches' Broom " might be caused in
two ways or it might be a case of dual parasitism.

Medallion Portrait of Peter Muilman. -Mr. J. Avery exhibited a medal
struck to commemorate the 40th Marriage-day of Peter Muilman, patron of the
well-known History of Essex, By a Gentleman (1770). It was believed that no
other portrait of Muilman was in existence, and the medallion was consequently
of very considerable interest.

The several exhibitors were thanked for their communications.

" The Family and Life of Gilberd of Colchester." — Professor Silvanus
P. Thompson, D.Sc, F.R.S., &c, then delivered a Lecture on this subject, which
was illustrated by the exhibition of rare books, autographs, and by a series of
lantern-slides. The Lecturer dwelt principally on the many interesting problems
connected with the pedigree of the familv and of Gilberd's professional life in
London. The lecture was a measure supplemental to Professor Thompson's
former lecture which was printed in volume v. of the Essrx Naturalist, and
it is to be hoped that a full abstract of the Address may be published at some
future time.

The Lecturer was most cordially thanked by the President, and Professor
Meldola made some remarks upon Gilberd's position in the history of scientific
thought, and referred to his high character as probably the first real experi-
mentalist in English science.

"68 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB.

The vote of thanks was carried by acclamation, and Professsor Thompson
.replied.

The Hymenomycetal Fungi of Essex. — The Secretary read an abstract
-of a paper by Dr. M. C. Cooke, A.L.S., &c, and Mr. George Massee, F.L.S.,
being a "Revised List of the Hymenomycetal Fungi of Essex ; a contribution to
a Flora of the County." The list will appear in the Essex Nat., and will be
probably reprinted in separate form to serve as a check-list at the Fungus Forays
■of the Club.

THE 25th ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING AND
SPECIAL MEETING.

Saturday, April 8th, 1905.

The 24th Annual Meeting of the Club was held at the Municipal Technical
Institute, Stratford, at 4 p.m., Mr. F. \V. Rudler, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the 24th Annual Meeting, held on April 16th, 1904, and
printed in the Essex Naturalist, Vol. xiii., pp. 262-3, were read and con-
firmed.

The Secretary submitted the Annual Report of the Council for the year 1904.

Mr. Rudler said that the Council desired to add to the report a special
paragraph referring to Messrs. W. and B. G. Cole and the Misses Cole, and he
read the draft of the same, which is appended to the report.

Mr. David Howard, J. P., the Treasurer, submitted his financial statement
for the year 1904.

The report and treasurer's statement were unanimously received and adopted.

Both the report and statement are printed in the Year-book and Calendar for
1905-6, and this plan will be adopted in the future.

The Secretary presented the account of the Tea Fund for the Session 1904-5.
The receipts had been £3 is. 6d. and the expenditure £5 ;s. 6d. (including a
balance of £1 15s. 3d. from former session), leaving an adverse balance of
£2 6s.

At the Meeting on February ;th last, the following Members retired from the
Council by the Rules: — Messrs. Andrew Johnston, J. P., F. W. Reader,
Percy Clark, and Alfred Lockyer. The first two offered themselves for
•re-election, and were duly nominated. To fill the vacancies, Mr. Victor Taylor
and Mr. J. M. Wood, C.E. were nominated.

As Officers for 1905. the following were nominated : —
President — Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S.
Treasurer— Mr. David Howard, J. P., F.C.S., Pres.I.C.
Hon. Secretaries — Mr. W. Cole and Mr. B. G. Cole.
Librarian — Mr. Thomas W. Reader, F.G.S.
Auditors — Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S., and Mr. J. D. Cooper.

No other Members having been proposed, the above-named gentlemen stood
elected as Members of the Council and Officers for 1905, and were so declared
by the Chairman.

The Chairman said that the Council recommended the election of Prof.
Silvanus P. Thompson, D.Sc, F.R.S., &c, as one of the Honorary
Members, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the lamented death of Prof. G. B.
Howes, F.R.S., and the proposal was unanimously adopted by the meeting.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 6g>

The President intimated that he would reserve his address until the evening
meeting, in accordance with the announcement made in the circular.

Mr. Howard said that they ought to express to Mr. Rudler the best thanks of
the Members and Council, for the care and high scientific qualities which he had
devoted to the Club during his two years of office. (Applause.)

The Rev. W. S. Lach-Szyrma also emphasised the debt they owed to their
retiring President, and begged to move a vote of thanks to the several Officers for
their work. He considered it a remarkable fact that a local Society should
maintain a vigorous life during so long period as 25 years, and still show full
power tor future work. He thought that they all recognised the excellent efforts
of their Officers.

The thanks to the President and Officers were carried amidst applause.
Mr. Christy desired to thank the Club for the honour done to him in choosing
him as President. He had been connected with Club ever since its foundation,
and felt a most sincere interest in its welfare. He hoped that a strong effort
would be made to increase the membership of the Club, and to spread its
influence more widely in the County. He would submit some proposals to the
Council, with this end in view, during the year.

The meeting was then declared Special, in order to consider and adopt the
Amended Rules. The Secretary had summarised the alterations and
additions to the rules in the circular calling the Meeting, and proofs of the
Amended Rules were on the table.

On the proposal of the President the Rules were adopted unanimously by
the Meeting.

Copies of the Amended Rules have since been sent to all Members of the
Club, and the Rules are printed in the Year-book, a copy of which will be sent to-
each Member.

The Meeting then adjourned for tea, to re-assemble in the evening.

THE 237th ORDINARY MEETING.

Saturday, April 8th, 1905.

The Annual Meeting having been held!in the afternoon, an Ordinary Meeting
was held after tea, at 0.30 o'clock, Mr. F. W. Rudler, V.P., in the chair.

New Member. — Mr. Frank Thompson, Slyder's Gate, Loughton, was
elected a Member.

Exhibits.— Mr. W. H. Dalton, F.G.S., exhibited a considerable assortment
of fossils and minerals, from various parts of the world, which he had obtained
during his recent professional journeys : —

(1) He drew special attention to marl crowded with small Rissoa, &c, from,
the Miocene of Frankport-on- Main, which he had brought for comparison with
similar accumulations on the present shores of Essex.

(2 Also a small collection of shells gathered in the course of a few hours
delay on the shore of the Okhotsk Sea,on the eastern side of the island of Sakhalin.
Their resemblance to, if not specific identity with, our British Myadse, Tellinidas,
Mactridae, Buccinida?, &c, is remarkable, in view, less of the wide difference of
longitude between Sakhalin and Essex, than of the difficulties, in respect of
temperature, to any interchange of marine forms across either the Polar or the
Equatorial seas.

7o

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB.

(3) Land and river shells from the northern parts of Lower Burma, with some
forms generically similar to those in England, mixed with others of very
unfamiliar aspect. The aquatic Gastropoda show the most difference, whilst the
Cyclas. Anodon and Unio are much like those of the English rivers.

Some of our entomological members took much interest in a trayful of scorpions,
beetles and other " nasty things " (as Mr. Dalton called them) from the Burmese
jungles.

It may be mentioned here that on the same part of the Sakhalin shore there
was found the skull of a large whale, one of the Ear-bones from which Mr.
Dalton has placed with our fossil Ear-bones from the Crag in the Museum for
comparison.

Photographs of Essex Coast.— Mr. John Spiller exhibited ten photo-
graphs, which had been presented for [the Photographic Survey of Essex, by
Mr. T. E. Freshwater, F.R.M.S. They were views of Walton-on-the-Naze,
Frinton and Clacton, and might become interesting in connection with the rapid
changes which are taking place in that part of our coast.

Bifid Earthworm.— Mr. Cole exhibited a very curious specimen of an Earth-
worm, with a bifid tail, which had been sent to the Museum by Mr. Walter B.
Nichols. It had been found by Mr. Nichols' gardener, in his garden at Stour
Lodge, Bradtield, Manningtree, Essex. Mr. Cole promised to give details of
this curious "freak" after further examination and comparison with the recorded
instances of like examples.

Oil-painting of Romford. — Mr. James Holden, Locomotive Superintendent
of the Great Eastern Railway, sent for exhibition a large oil-painting of
Romford Cattle Market about the middle of the last century. The picture was
much admired.

Ordnance Survey Maps in Museum. — Mr. A. E. Briscoe, B.Sc,
Principal of the Institute, called attention to the complete set of the 6in.
Ordnance Survey Maps of Essex, which had been obtained for use in the Museum,
and particularly in connection with the Photographic Survey of Essex. They
would be placed in portfolios in a cabinet in the Museum, and he hoped that they
would prove valuable and interesting for reference.

Mr. Rudler said that he considered the Club had been very fortunate in
obtaining such ready help and co-operation from Mr. Briscoe, and the
Education Committee, in the establishment of the very interesting scheme for a
photographic survey. (Applause.)

Presidential Address and Thanks to Mr. Rudler. — Mr. Rudler then
delivered his Presidential Address, which had been postponed from the Annual
Meeting that afternoon. The subject was " Natural History Museums," and
it was illustrated by lantern-slides, and by the exhibition of rare books relating
to Museums. [The address is printed in extenso in the present volume,
ante pp. I to 37.

In the absence of the new President, Mr. Miller Christy, who had left early to
-catch the train to Chelmsford, Prof. Meldola proposed that a cordial vote of
thanks be passed to Mr. Rudler, both for his eminent services during his two
years in the Presidential chair, and for the admirable address which he had just
delivered. The Club was indebted to Mr. Rudler for an appreciative and
personal interest in its affairs which would always linger in the memories of the
members, and was a matter for congratulation, that as one of , the Permanent

NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 71

Vice-Presidents they would still have the great benefit of Mr. Rudler's scientific
knowledge and experience. The President's appreciation of the efforts the Club
was making to establish a local museum was one of the best evidences that could
be afforded that these efforts were being pursued on right lines, and Mr.
Rudler's address would not only be most valuable in itself, but would be a
great aid and encouragement in the future of the Museum.

The vote of thanks was seconded warmly by Mr. T. V. Holmes, and carried
by acclamation.

Mr. Rudler replied and thanked Prof. Meldola and Mr. Holmes for their
appreciation of his efforts, and the members for the way in which they had
endorsed the remarks which had been made.

NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED.
ZOOLOGY.

BIRDS.
Dotterel at Fowlness,— On Saturday, Sept. 2nd, 1905,
a Dotterel (Eadvomias movinellus) , a bird of the year, was shot in
Fowlness Island, and by the kindness of Mr. H. Matthams, of
Fowlness, it was sent to me for identification and preservation.
— Henry Laver, Colchester. [Christy (Birds of Essex) remarks
that the Dotterel is a rare passing migrant in spring and
autumn when on its way to or from its more northerly breeding
stations among the Scotch mountains.]

How the Wild Birds are returning to the London
District. — In the Daily News for September 28th, 1905, is a very
interesting article on the return of the birds. The writer
says : —

For some little time visitors to St. James's Park have enjoyed the beautiful
spectacle of a kingfisher flitting about the lake, his brilliant plumage glistening
rainbow-like in the sun as he darts after the small fishes in the water. Mr. C. J,
Cornish, the well-known writer on wild birds in the Thames Valley, yesterday
told a member of our staff that the kingfisher is not the only wild bird that is
beginning to make its home in London aftet long absence.

' The presence of the kingfisher in St. James's Park may be accounted for,'
he said, ' by the enormous increase of fish in the ponds there. In spite of the
presence of cormorants and pelicans, the water swarms with fish. Roach and
dace are fed from the bridge just as the gulls are in winter, and probably there
is a large quantity of fry to attract the kingfisher. These birds are very bold
when they find nurseries of young fish, and I have known them rob infant trout
from the boxes of a hatchery. They have appeared before this on the pond at
Battersea Park, and a pair nested two years ago in the grounds of Chiswick
House. If the fish supply continues the kingfisher is not likely to desert St.
James's Park. London is becoming increasingly attractive to many kinds of

72 NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED.

wild birds, especially those that frequent the neighbourhood of water.
The universal protection given to them leads them to have no fear of
mankind, and the many new lakes and reservoirs, such as the West
Middlesex reservoir, near Ranelagh, provide them with their natural hunting and
nesting places. The parks, too, afford perfectly safe homes for many birds. For
instance, the wood-pigeon — quite a different bird from the tame pigeons of
St. Paul's — now abounds in many parks, and is becoming almost domesticated.
It is even changing its habits, and now builds on chimneys and roof cornices.
Then, to go back to water-birds, on the Serpentine and the ponds in St James's
Park, are not only wild ducks and water-hens, but the coot, the pochard, or red-
headed diving duck, and the tufted duck, the male of which, by its bright black
and white plumage, is very conspicuous. This species is increasing quite as fast
in and round London as in the country. It is common on the Serpentine, in
St. James's Park, in Wanstead Park, and on the Penn Ponds at Richmond.
Three years ago I was invited by the chief engineer of the Middlesex Waterworks
to visit the reservoirs at Ranelagh, and there I saw at least seventy tufted ducks
which flew about as if on a preserved Norfolk mere. There were also a pair of
great erested grebes and many coots. Dabchicks, the smallest of the grebes,
breed in St. James's Park, and also at the Penn Ponds and Wanstead. This
year there were three broods of small water-hens in the lew yards of running
water below the Serpentine."

Mr. Cornish added that we could not hope to see all kinds of
wild birds returning, such as the insect-feeders — among them
all the warblers, the nightingale, the whitethroat, the blackcap,
and the chiff-chaff. " There is no suitable food for them in the
parks, as there are no bushes, undergrowth, and long grass of
the kind which harbours their food. The ground in the shrub-
beries is dug up, and dug ground is hopeless for them. One of
the few places where the small warblers are found is Chiswick
Eyot, where this summer the whitethroat, reed warbler, and
sedge warbler all nested. It is to be hoped that this eyot, with
its fine osiers, will never be built upon. Flocks of peewits come
into the market gardens near Chiswick, and have greatly
increased since the protecting Act was passed."

FISHES.

Salmon near Southend. — In the Daily Mail of June 3rd,
1905, it is noted that a " report has been received by the City of
London Piscatorial Society from a member residing at Leigh to
the effect that a small salmon has been captured off the Knock
Buoy, Southend. The fish, it is stated, was about eighteen
inches in length."

Dr. Laver says that salmon are still taken in nets on
various parts of the coast, and that few years pass without

NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 73

the fish being captured in the " Keddles " on the sands of
Fowlness.

MOLLUSC A.
Note on Crepidula fornicata in Essex. — In the October
part of the ] ouvn.il of Conchology (Vol. II., 227), our correspondent,
Mr. J. E. Cooper, makes the following remarks, which may be
taken as supplementary to the observations on the shell in the
E.N., Vol. x. " Crepidula fornicata L., the 'Crow-Oyster,'
originally introduced with American oysters, has been found in
several of the rivers of Essex for eleven years or more. It
would appear that the conditions in the Crouch river are
particularly favourable to it, as it is fast becoming a nuisance
to the oyster- men at Burnham-on- Crouch. In some parts
of this river every pebble and old shell has one or more (generally
more) specimens in it. Clusters of five or six, one on the back
of the other, are common ; one group found this year had no
less than nine in this position. 1 Some pebbles carry a cluster on
both sides ; even the neck of a broken one gave foothold to two
inside and three outside. The lowest shell of a group is obliged
to adapt its form to the pebble or shell to which it is attached ;
consequently some curious forms occur. Where the base is an
old oyster, the bottom Crepidula is remarkably flattened, but
whatever the shape of the lowest may be those above it are
usually normal in form."

IN SEC TS.
Gnorimus nobilis in Hainhault Forest. — This very
beautiful " Rose-beetle " is decidedly rare in Essex. Mr.
Harwood (Victoria History) says that single specimens occurred
near Colchester in 1899 an d 1900, and that a Mr. West took one
near Blackwall (!). Mr. Braithwaite noted the capture of a
specimen flying in a forest glade near Lough ton in 1880
(E.N., xi., 54), and in the E.N., vol. x., p. 411, I recorded one
from Lords Bushes, Epping Forest. I then suggested that the
larva of the beetle had possibly been introduced with shrubs or
plants in a neighbouring garden or plantation, but my brother,
B.G.C., has recently happened on a record in Kidd's Own Journal
for August 14th, 1852, of a specimen or specimens occurring in
Hainhault Forest just at the time of the destruction of the

1 I have placed in our Museum a set of eleven specimens so attached, taken in situm the
Colne estuary. — W. Cole,

F

74 NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED.

woodlands. This would seem to indicate that the Gnorimus was
indigenous in the forest in the old days, and that the specimens
occasionally still found are natives to and bred in the county.
— William Cole.

BOTANY.
Euphorbia esula Lim. in Essex. — In the Flora of Essex
Gibson remarks in a note upon Euphorbia esula that the dis-
tribution of that plant on the Continent renders it not
improbable that it is to be found in Essex, but up to that date
(1862) there was no record of its occurrence. Since then Mr.
Turner has found it at Witham, where it still grows, as has been
announced in the Essex Naturalist. I now have to record two
other localities for the plant. Miss Harrison, of Great Saling,
during a field meeting of the Braintree Ramblers at Danbury
found it near Linguard Common, and a few days afterwards I
found it in a disused garden at Broomfield. It may, of course,
have been an escape in the latter case, but I do not know that
it is ever planted for ornament. It is interesting to note that in
neither of the localities in the county does the plant occur in
" woods," the habitat generally given in British Floras. — F. J.
Chittenden, Biological Laboratory, Chelmsford, September 1st,
1905.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

The Deneholes of Essex. — The Times for September 30th,
1905, gave space for a long and very interesting special article
under the above title. The writer makes full acknowledgment
of the researches of the Essex Field Club as recorded in the first
volume of the Essex Naturalist, and fully agrees with the
views of Messrs. T. V. Holmes and \V. Cole, on the probable
object of the pits. He says : —

"It is enough to say that whatsoever may have been the original purpose of
these excavations, or the successive uses to which they have been put, no sane

man ever made them simply for the purpose of obtaining chalk It

follows that we are driven back into the spacious field of probability, conjecture,
and tradition. The chalk-quarry theory must clear!}' be discarded. If the
elaborate shape and similar design of the chambers were not enough to
disprove it, a dozen arguments could be added. Chalk-wells, sunk deep into the
chalk, in order to obtain pure chalk, free from ' pipes,' we know ; but they are
believed to be modern, and the essence of them is that they should be deep in the
chalk, whereas these are deeper underground, but not deep in the chalk. Other
excavations in the chalk are known, near Brandon, on the borders of Norfolk and
Suffolk, at Crayford, Chiselhurst and elsewhere. But they are none of them

NOTES - ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 75

really similar to the Grays holes ; those at Brandon were clearly shown to have
been made in search of Hints ; here there are few flints, those that exist appear to
have been disregarded, and there are no chipping*. In fact, each set of Dene
or Dane-holes must be judged by its own surroundings primarily."

The writer discusses the various theories which may be
advanced respecting the precise age of the deneholes, and urges
the desirability of further investigation to complete the work
begun by the Club.

Visit to the Deneholes, Hangman's Wood. — The

Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society having decided
to visit the deneholes of Hangman's Wood, Grays, on June 4th,
1904, were good enough to invite me to join them. Dr. H. C.
Male, the director, had made the necessary arrangements for the
descent. We entered the pits by the shaft of No. 4 (Plan of
Deneholes, Essex Naturalist, vol. i.). The party appeared to
be much interested in what they saw. When in No. 5, an
attempt was made to take a photograph, which was unfortunately
unsuccessful owing to the variability in the amount of the light
afforded by magnesium wire. Reference to the denehole plan
will show that No. 2 is a five-chambered pit, the position of the
sixth chamber being represented but by a very slight concavity.
But when we were working in these pits nothing appeared to
give any presumption as to the cause of the absence of the sixth
chamber. For the other chambers are rather below than above
the average size, and a sixth chamber of more than the usual
length might have been made without too near an approach to a
neighbouring pit. In June this year, however, the reason for the
non-excavation of the sixth chamber was almost certainly
revealed by the appearance, in the slight hollow representing it,
of an area of a few inches in extent consisting of Thanet Sand,
and marking the existence of a " pipe " in the chalk there.
These pipes, as every one knows, are extremely varied in shape
and in the way they ramify. There is a large one shown in the
roof of another part of No. 2, the existence of which no doubt
caused the original excavators to desist working at the sixth
chamber at the sight of the slightest quantity of sand in the
chalk six or seven feet above the floor. — T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

The Chislehurst (Kent) Caves.— At the meeting of the
the Club on October 29th, 1904, Mr. T. V. Holmes exhilited a

76 NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED.

" J2fl9 'Mr

plan of these old workings for chalk. He said that since he
made the remarks on these caves at the meeting on April 16th
(E.N., vol. xiii., pp. 263-4), ne Da< ^ received the plan shown.
An old friend of his, Mr. R. O. Heslop, F.S.A., of
Newcastle-on-Tyne, wrote to him asking if he knew anything
about these caves, and adding that Mr. T. E. Forster, a well-
known mining engineer of that city, was much interested in them.

CHISLEHURST CAVES

Plan of a small group of the more remote galleries, but thoroughly typical of the general
system of excavation. Scale 33 feet to one inch.

From T. E. Foster's Plan.

He (Mr. Holmes) sent to Mr. Heslop an account of these caves
resembling that given in the Essex Naturalist, which Mr.
Heslop forwarded to Mr. Forster. On May 13th, Mr. Forster
wrote expressing agreement as regards the modes of construction
and the objects of the makers of these Chislehurst Caves, and
very kindly forwarding the plan exhibited, which is dated
January, 1904. Being the work of a man specially qualified to
make an accurate plan of such workings, its testimony is
decisive. It clearly shows that whatever may be the apparent

NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 77

irregularites as regards the size and direction of the galleries,
but one general plan of working prevails throughout. One
published account of these caves states that the positions of
some seventy denehole shafts appear in the ground
above them. But the plan shows that any hollows giving that
impression must be either surface workings for sand and gravel,
or indicate the positions of the downfalls of sand into the chalk
beneath. For in themselves these hollows furnish no evidence
whatever of the existence of denehole shafts, though similar
cavities may be found at the surface when deneholes exist. In
this case the plan shows no trace of any intersection of deneholes
in the workings, a fact decisive against the denehole hypothesis.
Judging from the plan, the area occupied by these excavations
must be between fifteen and twenty acres. And the point in
them most remote from their present entrance is about 300 yards
away, if measured in a straight line. It is also noticeable that
though the same general plan of working prevails throughout, the
galleries within a certain distance of the entrance are on the
average higher and broader than those which are more distant.
And to the most remote belong the little group here given, to
show the general arrangement of the galleries.

These caves were visited by the Geologists' Association on
April 26th, 1902, Messrs. T. V. Holmes and C. W. Osman being
the directors and reporters of the excursion, an account of which
may be seen in Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xvii. The reporters look
on the caves as workings for chalk. In the Journal of the British
Archaological Association for December, 1903, there is a paper by
Mr. W. J. Nichols, in which they are considered to be deneholes.
And in the Journal of the British Archccological Association for
August, 1904, there is a paper about them by Messrs. T. E. and
R. H. Forster, in which the view that they are excavations for
obtaining chalk is upheld. It is to this Mr. T. E. Forster that
we are indebted for the plan which so decisively settles their
affinities.

MISCELLANEA.

An Ancient Municipal Enterprise. — Our esteemed
member, Mr. J, C. Shenstone, F.L.S., contributed to the Saturday
Westminster Gazette of August 12th, 1905, an interesting article
under the above title, from which we cull a few paragraphs : —

"It frequently happens that when the full force of some great social

78 NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED.

development is first realised it is regarded as a revolutionary movement suddenly
sprung upon the world. A search into its history, however, might show that the
movement originated in much older times, but that, progress being slow in its
earlier stages, it passed unnoticed until, suddenly gaining force, the world
became aware of the wide changes involvedv

" Most people would regard our modern municipal enterprises as modern
innovations, but there is one — the Colchester Oyster Fishery — which, there is
every reason to believe, dates back to the time of the ancient Briton. It is quite
certain that the " Colchester Native " enjoyed a wide reputation in the days of
ancient Rome, and it has even been humorously suggested that Julius Caesar first
visited Britain in order to obtain control of the supplies of this much-appreciated
dainty.

" The first existing documentary evidence of this ancient fishery takes us back
to the year 1189, when amongst the privileges confirmed to the municipality of
Colchester was the right to fish from ' North Bridge to West Ness.' Other
documents clearly indicate that this privilege had been enjoyed by the town from
a much earlier time, for the Colchester Red Paper Book contains a proclamation
made in Colne Waters in 1,256 by the Bailiffs of Colchester which referred to the
fishery rights as having been granted by ' many Noble Kings of England from
time out of memory.' There is little doubt that the fishery existed in Saxon
times, though probably then maintained by tradition and custom. The shells
of the Colchester Native have been found in many Roman stations, and
even in Rome itself, whilst at Gloucester the shells ot the Essex native are said
to have been found near to the officers' quarters in the camp, the shells of a
common oyster having been found about the quarters of the rank and file. Hence
a considerable trade was done in these bivalves in the Roman period of our
history, and had not the fishery been under municipal control at that time
the fisheries would assuredly have been exhausted.

" There can be no doubt that Colchester was inhabited by an advanced
people at the time of the Roman Invasion, and that the fishery was under some
kind of control. Oyster-shells have been found amongst the refuse of the
earliest British settlements ; to find the beginnings of this enterprise we should
possibly have to go back to the days of the " painted savage " who figured so
large in the histories of our school days.

" The later developments of the Colchester oyster industry can be clearly and
completely traced for over seven centuries in the written records of the borough.
The first document in which we find the fishery mentioned is the Charter of
Richard I., 1 189. The fishery rights are confirmed in this and all succeeding
charters, but it is to the ancient Court Rolls to which we must turn to learn how
the industry giew to its present proportions."

A Stroll in Epping Forest Fifty Years Ago. — This
pleasantly written story of a ramble is quoted from Kidd's Own
Journal for 1853 (vol. iii.). There is reason for identifying the
writer with the late Mr. De la Chaumette, of Tottenham.
" Bombyx Atlas " was an enthusiastic collector of Continental
lepidoptera, and his stories of butterfly-hunting in Switzerland,
in the form of the auto-biography of his fine old dog " Fino," are

NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 79

amongst the most racy and amusing narratives of the kind we
have ever read : —

" When Old Sol arose on the morning of the 2nd of May, he found myself,
my youngest son, and old ' Fino,' enjoying a substantial breakfast ; discussing
thereat the probable pleasures ol a day which we had devoted, in our mind's eye,
to a merry ramble. It was agreed that my companion should look after water-
beetles, and that whilst he was so engaged, I should secure any other stray beetle
or butterfly, &c., &c, that might cross my path — 'Fino' keeping order among
the rabbits. Well, our various instruments de chasse being ready, off we started,
about five o'clock a.m. Our route lay direct to the ' Seven Sisters, and thence to
the Tottenham Station, which we crossed ; and on to the Ferry House. It certainly
was a glorious morning, although there was a cool easterly wind stirring, and we
did not regret having put in practice an idea (which we at one moment enter-
tained) of going sans veste. Passing forwards, we reached Walthamstow, and
here the beams of the sun began to be felt. This refreshed us, and thus accom-
panied, a most lovely walk we had. Onward still further, and we came to the
Woodford Road, which runs through part of the Forest. Here it was decidedly
warm. Turning to our left, we followed up the road, meeting now and then a
brood of pretty little goslings, which seemed much to interest' Fino,' but the old
fellow was desperately alarmed when the fond mother flew at him, with
outstretched neck and wings, hissing close to his very nose. He took all this,
however, as he generally does everything else, very good-temperedly, and after a
time, made tolerable friends with Mrs. Goose and her happy family. He was
not so successful, however, with an old hen further on. She would listen to no
accommodation, and to avoid a row, ' Fino' made a bolt of it. In good time we
reached the turnpike, and in a few minutes more the ' Bald Face Stag ' (an old
acquaintance of ours). We can indeed recollect the said ' Bald Face ' for some
few years ! Here we were ushered into a room we knew full well ; and looking
at our watch, found it half-past seven o'clock. We rested near a good fire, just
half an hour— pour rafraichir la memoire — and having requested dinner to be
ready at half-past two, we started again, neither knowing nor caring which way
we went, so long as we kept within scent of the 'Bald Face Stag.' We now
struck off to the left, and ' Fmo ' soon spied some rabbits. Literally mad with
delight, nothing could stop him — off he went like a greyhound. But it was all of
no use, the little rabbits only laughed at him, and this made him still more mad.
We rambled for some time, just where fancy or ' Fino ' led — now in a swamp or
a bog, now fishing in little ponds searching under stones or the bark of trees,
&c, &c, until our hearts weie gladdened by the sound of ' Cuckoo, Cuckoo ! '
the first time we had heard it this year. It was just eleven o'clock. Suddenly,
a peculiar bark was heard from old ' Fino, 5 and looking round, we saw his tail
wagging at an unusually brisk rate. On nearing the spot we found him contem-
plating a snake some four feet long. At our approach it slipped into its hole, and
then, good-bye ! After this we broke into a singular field or rather opening in
the forest, where an aged bird-catcher was plying his vocation. ' Good morning,
old gentleman ! ' — "Good morning, sirs!' and we soon entered into a familiar chat
with our ornithological acquaintance. More than three-score years and ten had
evidently passed over his grey head, whilst his manners and language betokened
him to be a man who had seen better days. Not that he was to be pitied ! By
no means ! Yet did he seem a man of gentler birth than bird-catchers generally
are. We learned from him that his early life had been spent near Liverpool, and

80 NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED.

that he had always loved birds, and knew full well their different songs
— but that he now took them, more by way of amusement and recreation than
from necessity. Also, that both himself and his wife had got a tolerable
independence. I asked him if he had heard the nightingale this season, and he
told me, ' Yes, on the 2ist April, for the first time.' We now parted from our
friend, as he said he was going to repose for about two hours before his dinner, as
he was getting old, and felt rather tired. On looking around, we perceived a
stone on which was marked ' Loughton Parish.' We struck again through the
forest, retracing our steps. Hereabouts, old ' Fino ' made an awkward leap of
it. He was after the rabbits and springing over a hedge, without having
sufficiently calculated his leap, or looking before he leaped. He leaped, and fell,
nose foremost, into a soft bog. He was very wroth, but a pond being near at
hand, he soon washed his proboscis and forgot all about it. At length we
found ourselves an point de depart ; and being half-an-hour earlier than the time
appointed, we turned down a sweetly pretty lane to the right. Here on a sunny
bank, ' Pino ' found another kind of sport, in the shape of some little fawn-
colored mice, which, however, I could not allow him to hunt or annoy. We
again turned back, and reached the ' Bald-Face Stag,' precisely at the hour
appointed — very hot, rather tired, very thirsty, and with an appetit de Ion p. We
were shown into a snug little room, and 'Fino ' soon curled himself round in a
corner, dreaming of his glorious sport with the rabbits. Whilst dinner was
getting readv, we recollected that we had seen atalanta, rhamni, persiearior,
tilice, verbasci, menthastri ', urticce, po/ychloros, bncephala ; that we had
taken rhizolitha, and obtained some interesting larvae, and our beetle-bottle
contained Cicindela ca/npestris, Scarabcens eremita, Aphodius ga gates, and
many others, as well as a quantity of water-beetles. After a while, dinner was
announced. Just fancy, Mr. Editor, a beautiful knuckle of veal, done to a nicety,
some delicious spring pork, tender brocoli, Guinness's best, and Charrington's
super-extra, just to relish a capital cheese. Then, an adjournment to a neat little
alcove in the garden, where we enjoyed a fine Havannah, and some brilliant
sherry ; old ' Fino,' in the meanwhile, snoring at our feet, having first disposed
of the residue ol the veal and pork. Jolly were we all — and merry. At a quarter
past four o'clock we started on our return home, arriving at a quarter past
seven. An early supper and a sound sleep, saw us next morning in tip-top
spirits.— Bombvx Atlas, Tottenham, May 13th, 1853."

Rustic Criticism of Geologic Theory. — Sir Archibald
Geikie tells the story in his Scottish Reminiscences, recently pub-
lished. " I was quite sure you had been in our neighbourhood,"

a friend said to him : —

" ' I met the old farmer of G ,' who had a strange tale to tell me. * Dod !

Mr. Caithcart,' he began, 'Iran across the queerest body the ither day. As I
was coram' by the head o' the cleugh I thocht I heard a wheen tinkers quarrelin',
but when I lookit doon there was jist ae wee stout man. Whiles he was chappin'
the rocks wi' a hammer; whiles he was writin' in a book, whiles fechtin' wi' th e
thorns, and miscair' them lor a' that was bad. When he cam' up frae the burn,
him and me had a long confab. Dod! he tcll't me a" aboot the stanes, and hoo
they showed that Scotland was ance like Greenland, smoored in ice. A vary
enterteenin body, Mr. Caithcart, but— an awful awfu' leear.' "

lllilTlsir W00DL1CE.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV.. Plati X

f m\

PHILOSCIA MUSCORUAi Scopoli.

Length, nine millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat. F. W. Reader, sculpt.

HI! ITT si 1 WOOJDLICE,

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., riate XI.

PHILOSCIA COUCHII Kinaban.
Lens'th. nine millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE

Essex NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., Plate XII.

F ' \

Platyart-hrus hoffmannsegoii Brandt.

Length, llirce millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat. F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., Plalc XIII.

foRCELLio scaler Latieilie.
Length, fourteen millimetres

C'harks Sillem del. ad nat.

F. W Reader, sctilph

HRlTlsil wooiu.n /•;

KiSSJiX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV, J lair XIV

PoRCELLio PiCTUS Brandt and Ratzbitfg

Length, thirteen millimetres.
Charles Siltem, del. ad nat.

F. \V. Reader, sculpt.

URITISII W00DL1CE

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., Plate XV

/^i\

wr^M -

W^^-M

jj^r.trvsu'

.ilff-'.lfc

$m*77*wui^

Porckllio diLatatus Brandt.
Lengthy fifteen millimetres.

Charles Sillem del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

Local Publications &

BY

Benham & Co., 24, High Street, Colchester.

THE ESSEX REVIEW. Published Quarterly. Edited by EDWARD

A. Imich and Miss C. Fell Smith. Demy 8vo. 64 pages, is. 6d.

post fiee. A fully illustrated Quarterly Review o( all that is of per-
manent interest in Essex. Established 1H92. Back Volumes may be had

bound in clolh, price 7s. 6d. each, excepting the earlier volumes, which

are 2 is. each.

Annual subscription, if paid in advance, 5s., including free delivery.
"The best of the county magazines."
THE RED PAPER BOOK OF COLCHESTER. Transcribed

and Translated by YV. Gurney Bknham. Crown 4to. Fully Indexed.

A volume crowded with local information hitherto unpublished. 25s. nett.
GUIDE TO COLCHESTER. By W. Gurnry Benham. Crown 8vo.

140 pp. Over 100 illustrations. 6d. ; by post 8d.
COLCHESTER DIRECTORY AND ALMANAC, id. ; by post 3d.

Cloth 6d. ; by post 8d.
COLCHESTER OYSTER FEAST. Its History and Toast Lists.

Profusely illustrated. An amusing and unique volume. Demy 4to.

5s. nett. By post 5s. 4d.
ESSEX BALLADS, and other Poems. By Chaklks E. Benham.

Third Edition. Prefatory note by the Right Hon. the Countess of

Warwick, is. 6<1. ; by post, is. 8d.
WILLIAM GILBERT, of COLCHESTER. A sketch of his Magnetic

Philosophy. Bv Chas. E. Bknham. 2s. nett. Post free 2s. 2d.
ANCIENT TOKENS of COLCHESTER. By Ernest N. Mason.

Fully illustrated descriptive, and historical account of the tokens issued in

Colchester in the 17th and i8lh centuries. 5s. nett. By post 5s. 2d.
GUIDE TO COLCHESTER CASTLE. By Charles E. Bknham,

8 illustrations. Demy 8vo., 6d. ; bv post, ;d.
COLCHESTER NEW TOWN HALL. By Wilson Marriage

and \V. Gurnky Bknham. Fully Illustrated. Demy 4to. Second

edition, iqoo. 2s.; by post, 2s. 3d.
COLCHESTER TOWN HALL. Illustrated. Fcap, 8vo. 32 pages,

3d. ; bv post 3$d.
OLD COLCHESTER. A few chapters for young Colchester. By

Chaklks E. Benham. Illustrated, is.; by post, is. 3d.
AMONG THE TOMBS OF COLCHESTER. Full account of

load monuments, tablets, epitaphs, &c. 6d. ; by post, yd.
ANCIENT LEGENDS CONNECTED WITH THE ARMS OF

COLCHESTER. By W. Gurnev Bknham. Illustrated explanation

of the Arms, with the Stories of St. Helen and King Coel. Demy 8vo.

3d. ; bv post. 4d.
TWO LEGENDS OF COLCHESTER. By Alfred P. Wire.

Illustrated by W. Gurney Bknham. Demy 8vo. 3d. ; by post, 3*d.
OLD KING 'COEL. By Charlks E. Benham. Fcap. 8vo. Price 2d. ;

by post, }d.
THE TENDRING HUNDRED IN THE OLDEN TIME.

Bv ]. Yki.loly Watson, F.G.S., J. P. 5s.; by post, 5s. 4d.
NOTES on the GEOLOGY and ARCHEOLOGY of WALTON,

CLACTON and DISTRICT. By H. Slopes, F.G.S., and W. H.

Dalton. F.G.S., 6d. ; by post, ~d
MALDON. By Edward A. Bitch, ex-Mayor of Maldon. Illustrated.

1888. Fcap. 8vo. Paper cover. Price 3d. , by post, 3*d.
KING COEL POSTCARDS. Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, 6d.
THE ESSEX LABOURER, DRAWN FROM LIFE. ByW.G.B.

Illustrations. 4to., 6d. ; bv post b£.
COLCHESTER WORTHIES POSTCARDS. Gilberd, Harsnett,

Audley, and Grimston. Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, id.

THE WINTER SESSION OF
THE CLUB.

The members and friends of the Club are reminded that the
Winter Session will commence on Saturday, October 28th,
1905, at the Essex Museum of Natural History, Romford Road,
Stratford, Essex.

The Secretaries will be glad to have intimation of Papers
and Exhibitions intended to be brought before the Club
Early notices of this kind would greatly facilitate the arrange-
ments for the meeting.

Members and friends of the Club will find these monthly
meetings excellent opportunities of inspecting the Museum,
which is open from 10 a.m. to 10 p.m.

Tea and light refreshments are served at 5.30 p.m. The cost
is defrayed by voluntary subscriptions to the Tea Fund.

The meeting-room is provided with an excellent electric
lantern for the display of lantern slides.

W. COLE
B. G. COLE

Springfield,"
Epping Road,

Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

Hon. Secretaries.

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY.
Price to Non-Members, 5s» per part, post jree.

Part III., Vol. XIY] [OCTOBER, 190S.

The

Essex Naturalist:

BEING THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ESSEX FIELD CLUB,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Honorary Secretary and Curator.

Content*.

The British Woodlice. By Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S., and
Charles Sillem {With l T werity-ftve Plates and numerous
Ilhtst rations). Continued

\This Part contains the third Instalment (6) of the Twenty-five
Plates by Mr. C. Sillem, for the illustration of the Monograph
on the British Woodlice."]

[Title-page and Index to Volume XII J. is inserted loosely.]

PAGE

The Authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinions contained in
their respective papers.

PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX.

Entered Stationers' Hall.] [Published October, 1905,

Editorial communications to W. Cole, " Springfield," Buckhurst Hill, Essex,
and Advertisements to Messrs. Benham and Co., Printers, Colchester.

£§c < %e&XiQSoo& <xnb Cafenear of iQt
<&aux ftefc €fu6 for 1905-6.

The Council has decided to issue annually a new publication,
to be entitled The Year-book and Calendar, of which the first
volume, containing four plates, has been sent out to Members.
Additional copies may be had from the Hon. Librarian, price is.,
and to Members gd., post free. It will be published yearly
hereafter on the 20th April — that is, shortly after the close of the
Club's official year.

Those friends of the Club wishing to extend its sphere of
usefulness will find a few copies of the Year-book excellent
agents for propagandism.

The Year-book represents the business side of the Club's work.
It contains no scientific matter, which will continue to appear in the
Essex Naturalist, as hitherto.

The contents of the Year-book includes a Calender of Fixtures
for the year, an illustrated Record of the Club's Work in the
Past, the Report of the Council and the Treasurer's Accounts
for the past year, the Rules, the List of Members, and similar
information. Suggestions for the improvement of future issues
are invited.

It should be remembered that the Year-book is of the nature of a
supplement to the Essex Naturalist, and the annual copies
should be preserved to range with our Journal.

8i

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

By WILFRED MARK WEBB, F.L.S., and CHARLES SILLEM.
(With Plates I. — XXI'., and numerous other Illustrations.)

[Continued from page 56.]

In 1857 Kinahan read a paper before the British Association
(32) in which he described fourteen species of woodjice from the
British Islands, and eleven years later when Bate and West wood
published their book (1), the number had risen to seventeen.
One of the species (Oniscus fossor), however, was doubtful, and
although Dr. Scharff in 1894 (63) rejected it, his list contained
also seventeen species, for in the meantime the Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing had found Ligidium hypuorum in Surrey (70).

Since then the Rev. Canon Norman, Dr. ScharfT, the Rev.
T. R. R. Stebbing, and one of the present writers, have added
other species, as will be seen from the following pages, in which
all those found, up to the present time in the British Islands
are described and figured.

We shall now consider in detail the British genera and
species of woodlice and give their synonymy and distribution.

Order— ISOPODA.

Tribe— ONISCOIDA.

Section— L,1GIJE.

THE TWO DIVISIONS OF THE TAIL APPENDAGES ALIKE IN SHAPE.

Family— hlGHDM.

Flagellum with ten or more joints ; tail appendages

wholly visible ; head without lateral lobes.

Genus — LIGIA Fabricius, 1798 (27), p. 301.
Abdomen broad; body large; habitat, the sea-shore.

The genus Ligia agrees with Ligidium alone, in that the
flagellum of the larger antennae has more than ten joints. In
both genera, there are no lateral lobes to the head, and the tail
appendages are wholly visible from the upper surface of the
body. The latter in Ligia is, however, very many times bigger
than in Ligidium and shows no abrupt decrease in the width of
its segments when the abdomen is reached.

82 THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

Ligia oceanica Linne (The Quay-louse). Plate I.

1767 Oniscus oceaiticus Linne (43), p. 1061.

1793 Cymothoa oceanica Fabiicius (26), p. 509.

181 5 Ligia scopulomm Leach (38), p 374.

1868 Ligia oceanica Bate and Westwood (1), p. 444.

1898 Ligia oceanica Sars (59), 156, pi. LXX.

There is but one British species of Ligia, and this, the
largest member of the whole tribe to be met
with in these Islands, usually attains a length
of two centimetres, while adult males may be
nearly half as long again. It is the Oniscus
oceanicus of Linnaeus and lives on the sea shore,
where it may be found at low tide beneath stones
and rubbish in the crevices of timber. Ligia
forms a connecting link between the woodlice
proper and the many Isopods which actually
live in the sea.

The colour of the animals is a greenish grey,
and the compound eyes are almost black, so
that they are very conspicuous ; there are from
eleven to fourteen joints to the flagellum of the
outer antennae and this feature, taken in con-
A nd G la^ F p L p A d G u E nc^r junction with the large size and habitat, is
]01 lin g Ia H ocea1JcT A sufficient to identify the species in question.

On the coast of Essex the name " quay-
lowders " is given to these crustaceans, '• lowder " being
apparently an old plural of louse.

It is worthy of mention that Mr. Webb, when in charge of
the Marine Biological Station at Brightlingsea, examined a
very large male specimen of Ligia oceanica, in which the maxillae
were duplicated and consisted of four pairs instead of two.

BRITISH LOCALITIES:—

England: Brightlingsea; (W.M.W.): Maldon ; (W.M.W.
from R.M.): Southend; (J. A.M.) : Whitstable; (W.M.W.)
Heme Bay; Margate; Dover; Folkestone; fJ.A.M.)

Scotland : Shetland to Cornwall ; (Norman, 49J.

Ireland : East Coast ; West Glengariff ; Castletown ; Bere-
haven ; Bundoran ; (Scharf, 63).

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION: —
Europe: France; (25); Spain: (12): Denmark, Prussia, Norway, Faroe
Islands, Belgium ; (59).
Africa: Morocco; (16),

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

§3

Genus -LIGIDIUM Brandt, 1833 (3), p. 173
Zia, Koch (34).
Abdomen narrow; habitat, wet moss.
In Ligidium there are numerous joints to the flagellum, lateral
lobes are absent from the head, and the tail appendages are com-
pletely to be seen. All the segments of the abdomen are
distinctly narrower than those of the thorax and in this it agrees
with Trichoniscus, Trichoniscoides, Philoscia, and Metoponorthus.
In these, however, the flagellum has never more than seven
joints, the tail appendages (as in all genera but Ligia and
Ligidium) are partially hidden by the last segment, and in all the
four but Philoscia there are lobes to the head.

Ligidium hypnorum, Cuvier. Plaie II.

1792 Oniscus hypnorum Cuvier (9), pi. XXVI., figs. 3—5.

1793 Oniscus agilis Persoon, quoted by Koch in Panzer (51), part 5, pi. XXIV.
1830 Ligia hypnorum Bosc (2). p. 179.

1833 Ligidium persoonii J. F. Brandt (3>, p. 174, pi. IV., figs. 6—7.

1840 Zia agilis Koch (34). part 34, pis. XXII. and XXIII.

1844 Ligidium personii Zaddach (77), p. 17.

1853 Ligidium personii Lereboullet (39), p. 14, pi. I., fig. 1, pi. II., figs. 20—31.

1857 Ligidium personii Kinahan (32), p. 275, pi. XXI., fig. 14, pi. XXII., fig. 9.

1873 Zia saundersii Stebbing (70), p. 286.

1873 Ligidium agile Norman (48), p. 419.

Ligidium hypnorum Budde-Lund (8), p. 254.

only British

1885

1898 Ligidium hypnorum G. O. Sars (59), p. 158 pi. LXXI

This species, which like the last, is the
representative of its genus, was added to our
fauna in 1873 by the Rev. Thomas R. R.
Stebbing (70) who found specimens in the
neighbourhood of Copthorne Common, Surrey.
Up to the present time, when we are pleased
to announce that we discovered it in the
spring of 1902 at Warley in Essex, Ligidium
hypnorum has not been recorded from any other
place in the British Islands.

As the name of the species implies, it lives
in wet situations and in its turn connects Ligia
with the forms which inhabit drier places.
Ligidium hypnorum might be mistaken for
Philoscia muscorum, but as already pointed out in
the generic description, the latter has but a few
(three) joints to the flagellum, instead of from joint of the antenna

x \ a ° t of Ligidium hypnorum

ten to thirteen. From Ligia, the species under

consideration is distinguished by its small size, narrow abdomen,

and habitat.

FIG. 36.— FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR

84 THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

BRITISH LOCALITIES: —

England: Warley, Essex; (W.M.W.): Copthorne Common,.
Surrey ; (Stebbing, 70).

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION :-
Europe: France; (25): Sweden, Denmark, Germany; (59): Turkey; (8).

Family— TRICHONISCID^E.

Flagellum with less than ten joints ; head with lateral
lobes ; tail appendages partly hidden.

Genus— TRICHONISCUS Brandt, 1833 (3), p. 174.

Abdomen narrow ; eyes compound ; flagellum, usually with more than

three joints

In Trichoniscns the flagellum may have from seven to four
(rarely three) joints, As in Trichoniscns and tiaplophthalmus there
are lateral lobes to the head, though these are not very
pronounced ; the body is also of small size, the abdomen narrow
with both divisions of the tail appendages equally so, and almost
of the same length though slightly covered by the last segment.
The compound eyes distinguish Trichoniscns from the two genera
named, and from Platyarthrus, while its small size and the
character of its tail-parts mark it out from all others.

Trichoniscus pusillus Brandt. Plate III.

1833 Trichoniscus pusillus Brandt (3), p. 174, pi. IV., fig. 9.

1838 Itea riparia Koch (34), part 22, pi. XVII.

1844 Ilea lecvis Zaddach (77), p. 16.

1857 Philougria celer Kinahan (32), p. 281, pi. XXII., figs. 1—4.

1858 Philougria riparia Kinahan (33), pp. 191 and 198, pi. XXIII., fig. 1.
1868 Philougria riparia Bate and Westwood (1), p. 456.

1898 Trichoniscus pusillus Sars (59), p. 161, pi. LXXII, fig. 1.

This tiny species is found commonly amongst the roots of
the herbage in very moist places. It presents a horny translucent
appearance and is of a reddish brown colour. It runs with
considerable speed, and when it is moving, the white irregular
lines with which it is beset are not evident. Trichoniscus pusillus
is very much like Trichoniscus vividus in colour but the latter
species is nearly twice as big and has from five to seven joints
to the flagellum, while the former has never more than four.
Trichoniscus roseus is also much larger and its bright red colour
(which it loses, however, when preserved in alcohol) is
another means of distinguishing it from the species under
consideration.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

85

Professor Sars in his Crustacea of Norway (p. 162) describes from Christiania,
under the name of J'richoniscus pygmceus, a still smaller species. As this may
possibly be discovered in this country a brief comparison between it and
Trichoniscus pusillus may be of value. The former reaches
a length of but two millimetres; it is " whitish, semi-pellucid
with a few light brown pigmentary ramications across the
segments and a double row of irregular opaque patches along
the middle of its back " (p. 163). Its body is covered with
minute tubercles and there are only three joints to the
flagellum ; its movements are by no means rapid.

The body of Trichoniscus pusillus is smooth
and polished. It has four joints to the flagellum
— Dr. ScharfT (63) says three or four — and it
moves quickly.

BRITISH LOCALITIES:—

England : Brightlingsea ; Warley ; (W.M.W.) :
Epping Forest ; (Bate and Westwood, 1) ;
Hanwell ; Southall ; Kew Gardens; Langley ;
Burnham Beeches ; Dropmore ; Skirmett ;
Bluebell Hill, Maidstone ; (W.M.W.) : Chisle-
hurst ; Plymouth ; Polperro ; Looe ; (Bate and
Westwood, 1) : Hertfordshire ; Northumber-
land ; Durham; (Norman, 49) : Exeter; (Parfitt, 53).

Scotland : Edinburgh ; (Scott, 68) : Cumbrae ; (D. Robertson,

57).

Ireland : Connemara ; (Norman, 49) : Dublin ; Wexford ; Cork

and Kerry ; (Percival Wright teste Bate and Westwood, 1) :

Tyrone ;Waterford ; Portlaw ; Kilkenny ;Wicklow ; (Kinahan 33).

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION:—
Europe-. France; (25): Spain; (15): Italy; (19): Norway ; Sweden ;
Denmark ; Germany; (59).

Africa : Algeria ; Tunis ; Azores ; (24).
America : Niagara ; North America ; (59).

Trichoniscus vividus, Koch. Plate IV. (from a spirit
specimen).

1840 Itea vivida Koch (34), part 34, pi. IV.

fig. 37.

FLAGELLUM
ND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Trichoniscus
pusillus.

1858 Philouzna vivida Kinahan (33), pp. 197 and 19!
1868 Philougiia vivida Bate and Westwood (1), Vol

, pi. XXIII., fig. 2.
II., pp. 458 and 459, fi£

This species is claret-brown in colour and under a lens it is
seen to be marbled with white, indeed in appearance it is much
like Tfichoniscus pusillus though twice the size. There are
important differences between the two species as regards the
number of joints to the flagellum. These vary from five to seven
in Trichoniscus vividus while in the other, as already pointed

86

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

out, there are not more than four. The body is practically
speaking smooth for it bears only very small tubercles, widely
separated. In Trichoniscus vividus the antennae
1 lack the bristles which characterise those of the

other species in the genus. The species under
consideration was discovered by Dr. Kinahan
in March, 1858, at Portia w, Co. Waterford and
is active even amongst the snow.

BRITISH LOCALITIES:—

Ireland: Portlaw, Co. Waterford ; (Kinahan,
33): Cappagh, Co. Waterford ; (ScharfF, Irish
Nat., Vol. IX., p. 158) : Borris, Co. Carlow ;
(Scharff, 64.)

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION :—
Europe: Spain; (12).

Trichoniscus roseus Koch. Plate V.

FIG. 38. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Trichoniscus
vividus.

J838 Itca rosea Koch (34), part 122, pi. XVI.

1858 Philmtgria rosea Kinahan (33), pp. 197 and 199, pL

XXIII., fig. 3.
1858 Philougria rosea Bate and Westwood (1), p. 460
1898 Trichoniscus roseus Sars (59), p. 163, pi. LXXIII, fig. 1.

The third British species of Trichoniscus is of a deep pink
colour and has a light yellow stripe down the back (in some
habitats the animals are said to be quite white).
Arranged in transverse rows upon the body are
large tubercles, each of which under strong
magnification will be found to end in a tiny
hair. It is distinguished from Trichoniscus
pusiUus by the larger size of its body, which is
also comparatively broader, and from Trichoniscus
vividus by the four joints of the flagellum of its
antennae which latter have strong bristles upon
them. In the former species there are five or
more joints to the flagellum and the antennae,
though hairy, lack the bristles. Trichoniscus
roseus is to be looked for in old gardens.

BRITISH LOCALITIES:—

England : Warley ; (W.M.W.) : Mai don ;
W.M.W. from R.M.) ; Stanmore; Hanwell ;
Ealing; Wimbledon; (W.M.W.): Berkham-
sted ; Torquay ; (Norman, 49) : Plymouth ; (Bate
and Westwood, 1 and B.M.,) : Grassendale, near Liverpool ;
(R.W.) : Newtownards ; (R.W., Irish Nat, 1904, p. 260.)

FIG. 39. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF 1 HE ANTENNA

of Trichoniscus roseus.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

87

Scotland : Tarbert ; (Scott, 68).

Ireland : Dublin ; Ballyfinder, Co. Down ; (Scharff, 63) :
Templeogue; Dundrum ; Blackrock ; Rathgar, Co. Dublin;
Bray, Co. Wicklow ; (R.F.S.) : Oakleigh ; Kerry; (R.W.) :
Belfast; (Welch, Irish Nat., 1896, p. 213.; : At the grave of Josiah
Welch (grandson of John Knox), Castle Upton; Richhill, Co.
Armagh ; Castleconnell Ferry ; (R.W.) : Glenade House, Co.
Antrim ; (R.W r . from R. LI. ; Praeger).

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION : —
Europe: France; (25): Spain; (12;: Italy; (59): Denmark; Germany;
Holland; (39) : Dalmatia ; (18).
Africa: Algeria; Tunis; (24).

Genus— TRICHONISCOIDES, Sars, 1898

(59), p. 164.
A bdomen narrow ; eyes simple ; (ov wanting) ;
flagellum, with four joints.
The members of this genus are very much
like those of Trichoniscus. In the latter, how-
ever, the hinder legs are longer in proportion
and the eyes are compound.

Trichoniscoides albidus Budde-Lund.
Plate VI.

1879 Trichoniscus albidus Budde-Lund (7) p. 9.

1898 Trichoniscoides albidus Sars (59), p. 165, pi. LXXIIL, fig. 2.

We are able to include this species, as a
specimen was found by Mr. Webb at Eton
Wick in the summer of 1898. It is one of
a number of species which the Rev. Canon
Norman (49, p. 18) suggested as likely to be
British. It is the only representative of its
genus, which does not differ in any very important characters
from the others in the family. The narrow elongated body will
serve to separate it from Trichoniscus vividus and Trichoniscus
roseus, but on account of its size, which is much the same as that
of Trichoniscus pusillus and the two British species of
Haplophthalmus, it will be advisable to give some further points
of distinction. From the first its white colour will serve to
differentiate it ; the other two lack the narrow abdomen seen in
Trichoniscoides albidus. Moreover, not one of the three shows the
serrations on the side plates which characterise the species under

FIG. 40. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Trichonhcoides
albidus.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

consideration. Platyarthrus hoffmannseggii is small and white and
the edges of its side plates are toothed, but it is oval in shape,
possesses no eyes, and its stout antennae have but a single joint
to the flagellum instead of four. On the Continent this species
has been found in rich soil.

BRITISH LOCALITIES :-

England'. Eton ; (Stebbing, 71a, p. 113).

FOREIGX DISTRIBUTION :—
Europe : France ; Wimereux and Lyons, Foret (2$) : Norway ; Denmark ; (59)

G^fs-HAPLOPHTHALMUS School, 1850 (66), p. 449 .

Abdomen broad (comparatively) ; eyes simple ; flagellum with three

joints ; back with longitudinal ridges.

The body of Haplophthalmus is long in proportion to its width,
but there is no abrupt decrease in the breadth of the abdomen as
seen in Trichoniscus and Trichoniscoides. The eyes are simple as
in the latter genus and the lateral lobes of the head are rather
large, while the side plates of the body are well separated.

Haplophthalmus mengii Zaddach. Plate VII.

1844 Ilea mengii Zaddach (77), p. 16.

i860 Haplophthalmus elegans Schobl (66), p. 449.

1885 Haplophthalmus mengii Budde-Lund (8), p. 250

1898 Haplophthalmus mengii Sars (59), p. 167, pi. LXXIV., fig. 1.

The Rev. Canon Norman discovered two specimens of this
species in Ireland in June, 1899 (5°) 5 m the
previous year one of us (Air. Webb) found a
single example at Eton Wick.

The main differences between the members
of this genus and their allies are set forth in the
generic description and incidentally elsewhere,
so we shall content ourselves with giving the
distinctive points of the two British species.
Haplophthalmus mengii has a number of raised
longitudinal ribs on each segment of the thorax,
the outer ridges being somewhat broken. There
are also two prominent ribs upon the third
segment of the abdomen.

FIG. 41. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

OF Haplophthalmus
mengii.

Europe

BRITISH LOCALITIES:—

England: Eton; (Stebbing, 71a, p. 114).
Ireland : Corcumroe Abbey ; Co. Clare
(Norman, 50).

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION:—
France ; (25): Norway ; Prussia ; Germany ; Bohemia; (59).

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

8q

Haplophthalmus danicus Budde-Lund. Plate VIII.

1870 Haplophthalmus elegans Budde-Lund 6), p. 228 (not Haplophthalmus

elegans Schobl).
1879 Haplophthalmus danicus Budde-Lund (7), p. 9.
18S1 Haplophthalmus mengii Weber (76), p. 192, pi. V., figs. 7-9 (not Ilea

mengii Zaddach).
1885 Haplophthalmus danicus Budde-Lund (8), p. 250.
1898 Haplophthalmus danicus Sars (59), p. 168, pi. LXXIV., fig. 2.

This species was added to the British list by the Rev. Canon
Norman (49), who found a colony in his garden
at Berkhamsted. It has rows of tubercles on
its thorax instead of ridges, and there are no
ribs at all upon the abdomen. The front of the
head projects further comparatively and forms
a more acute point than in Haplophthalmus mengii
and it is not so purely white in colour as the
latter species.

BRITISH LOCALITIES :—

England: Warley Place; (W.M.W. from
Miss Willmott) : Queen's Cottage, Kew Gar-
dens ; Stanmore ; Hanwell, garden at Odstock,
Bennett's Nurseries ;(W.M.W.) : Berkhamsted ;
(Norman, 49).

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION :--
Europe: Fiance ; (2O ; Denmark ; Holland ; Germany ; and last peduncular

,^ „,„ _^ , T - T A ., n ,, , T JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

(Dollfus, Feu de Jeun, Nat., April, ib<)t) : Norway; OF Haplophthalmus
(Sars, 59). danicus.

Scxfwn—ONISCI.

THE OUTER DIVISIONS OF THE TAIL APPENDAGES BROADER THAN

THE INNER ONES.

Family— ONISCID^.
Tail appendages projecting when the animal is walking.

(1.) Unable to roll up into a complete ball.

Genus— ONISCUS Linne 1746 (41), p. 360.

Flagellum, with three joints ; abdomen broad ; head with lateral lobes.

The characters given above taken in conjunction with the

size of the animals will serve to distinguish' the members of

this genus.

Oniscus asellus Linne (The " Common Slater.") Plate IX.

1761 Oniscus asellus Linne (41), p. 500, No, 2058.

1792 Oniscus murarius Cuvier (9), p. 22, pi. XXVI.

1818 Oniscus Jossor Koch (34), part 22, pi. XXII.

\$6i Oniscus asellus Bate and Westwood (1), p. 468.

1868 Oniscus jossor Bate and Westwood (1), pp. 471-2.

1898 Oniscus asellus Sars (59), p. 171, pi. LXXV.

FIG. 41 —FLAGELLUM

C)0 THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

Oniscus asellus is one of the largest of our woodlice and it is
also probably the commonest, though Porcellio scaber is in many
places quite as abundant. The body of Oniscus is broad and
expanded and the colour is usually a slate grey with yellowish
markings more or less regularly arranged.

From the genus Porcellio the species with which we are
concerned is at once distinguished by the three
jointed flagellum. Porcellio has but two joints
and has besides a prominent lobe projecting
from the middle of the head, which is not seen
in Oniscus. Philoscia, although it has three joints
to the flagellum, has a narrow abdomen and
lacks entirely the lateral lobes which are a
feature of the other genera of Oniscidae.

Oniscus fossov of Koch (34) was recognized by
Kinahan and by Bate and West wood as a
species. Dr. ScharfT submitted specimens to
Professor Budde-Lund who found no differences
between them and Oniscus asellus. The former
(63) mentions, however, that the characteristics
fig. 43.— flagellum f t h e supposed species are those of young

AND LAST PEDUNCULAR r r r J °

joint of the antknna examples of Oniscus asellus, and Professor Sars

cf Oniscus asellus. r

(59, p. 173) seems to be of the same opinion.
Many young examples of Oniscus asellus that we have examined
have a curious whitish transverse band owing to the light colour
of the dorsal plates of the first abdominal segments. The
flagellum also does not seem to shew in young animals a distinct
division into three joints.

BRITISH LOCALITIES :—

England : High Beach, Epping, including an albino ; Maldon ;
Brightlingsea ; Iver ; Hanwell; Eton; Kew ; Pamber Forest;
Kingston-on-Soar ; Bluebell Hill, Maidstone ; (W. M. W.) :
Lynmouth ; (W.M.W. from J.T.C.).

Scotland : (ScharfT, 63). Dinnet, Aberdeenshire ; (W.M.W.
from Madame Christen

Ireland : (ScharfT, 63). Yellow form with black spots, Donegal
(R.W.)

FOREIGN DISTRIB UTION :—

Europe: Almost throughout; (12): France; (25): Spain; (12): Sweden;
Norway; Denmark : Germany ; Holland ; Italy ; Iceland ; (59) : Faroe Islands ;.
Thornsharn ; (R.F.S.)

Africa : Azores ; (24).

America : Greenland ; (59) : North America ; (Budde-Lund).

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

91

Genus— PHILOSCIA Latreille, 1804 (37), p. 43.

Flagellum with three joints; abdomen narrow; head without
lateral lobes.

If any further differences of an obvious kind be required to
distinguish Philoscia from Oniscus, one at least will be found in
the much greater development of the hinder legs in the former

Philoscia muscorum Scopoli. Plate X.
[Not of Lereboullet, which is an Oniscus, see Bate and Westwood (1).]

1763 Oniscus muscorum Scopoli (67), p. 415.

1793 Oniscus si/lccstris Fabricius (26), p. 397.

1793 Oniscus agilis Koch in Panzer (51), part 9, pi. XXIV.

1833 Philoscia manuonda Brandt (3), p. 183.

1838 Ligia melanocephala Koch (34), part 22, pi. XVIII.

1847 Zia melanocephala Koch (38), part 40, pi. I. ?, p. 212.

1868 Philoscia muscorum Bate and Westwood (1), p.

1898 Philoscia muscorum Sars (59), p. 174, pi. LXXVI., fig. 1.

This species lives chiefly at the roots of grass and under the
stones or sticks that lie among it. Philoscia
muscorum has a very smooth and shining body,
and its long legs enable it to move very rapidly.
The ground colour of its dorsal surface varies
from light yellow to deep brown. There are
characteristic dark markings down the middle
of the thorax and on the sides, between which
are lighter patches. In dark coloured speci-
mens the markings are by no means so evident.

BRITISH LOCALITIES:—

England : High Beach, Epping ; Warley ;
(W.M.W.): Maldon; (W.M.W. from R.M.) :
Kew ; Langley ; Han well, yellow variation ;
Bluebell Hill, Maidstone ; (W.M.W.) : Liphook ;
(C.S.) : Pamber Forest ; Kingston-on-Soar ;
(W.M.W.)

Scotland : (Scott, 68).

Ireland : Almost throughout ; (Scharff, 63).

FIG. 44.— FLAGELLUM

AND LAST PEDUNCULAR

JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

OF

Pliiloscia muscorum.

FOREIGN DISTRIB UTION :—

Europe: Fiance; (25) : Spain; (12): Sicily; (19): Hertsogovinia ; (22):
Sweden; (21) : Norway ; Denmark ; Prussia ; Germany ; Holland ; Poland ;,
Austria; Italy; (59): Sardinia; (21).

Africa : Algeria ; Tunis ; (24).

9 2

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

Philoscia couchii Kinahan. Plate XI.

1858 PhUosqia couchii Kinahan (33), p. 195, pi. XXIII. , fig. 4.

1868 Philoscia couchii Bate and VVestwood (1), p.

1885 Ligidium COUChii Budde-Lund (8), p. 257.

1885 Philoscia loiigicomis Budde-Lund (8). p. 22r,

1897 Philoscia couchii Dollfus (21), p. 72, pi. I., fig. 1.

Philoscia couchii is an inhabitant of the sea-side ; it is smaller
than the last species, its colour to the naked eye
is a uniform lead-grey, and its antennae are very
large (compared with its size) and hairy.

This species was discovered by Professor
Kinahan when in the company of Messrs. Bate
and Westwood near Polperro in Cornwall in
the year 1858, and dried specimens presented
by him are in the British Museum (Natural
History).

BRITISH LOCA LITIES : —

England : Talland Cove ; Polperro ; (Bate
and Westwood, t) : Salcombe, Devon ; (Norman,
49) : Meadefoot, Torquay ; (Stebbing in 49).

FOREKiX DISTRIB UTIOX :—

Europe: France; (25): Spain; (12): Sicily; (19):
Sebastopol ; (Norman, 49).

Africa : Azores ; Canaries ; Morocco ; Algiers ; Tunis ;
Egypt ; Senegal ; (24).

Atlantic Isles : Canaries ; Azores ; (21),

Asia: Syracuse; Bazone (18).

FIG. 45. — FLAGKLLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Philoscia couchii.

G^ks-PLATYARTHRUS Brandt, 1833 (3), p. 174.

[Typhloniscus Schobl (66), p. 279.]

Flagellum with one joint ; eyes %v anting ; abdomen broad; habitat,

ants nests.

The broad body, which is much flattened, and the very thick
antennae distinguish Platyarthrus from the other small woodlice
(Trichoniscidae).

Platyarthrus hofTmannseggii Brandt. Plate XII.

1833 Platyarthrus hoffmannseggii Brandt (3), p. 174, pi. IV 7 ., fig. 10.

1844 Itea crassicornis Koch (34), part 36, pi. V.

i860 Typhloniscus steinii Schobl (66), p. 2S2.

1868 Plat t/arth us hoffmannseggii Bate and Westwood (1). p.

1898 Platyarthrus hoffmannseggii Sars 159), p. *75, P 1 - LXXVI., fig. 2.

Up to the present this is the only woodlouse which has been
found in the nests of British ants. It is small and oval, its

THE BRITISH WOODLICK. 93.

colour is white, and its body is covered with tubercles. The
edges of its side plates are toothed, its flagellum has but a
single joint and it has no eyes.

Miss Kate Hall tells us that, if very hungry, ants in captivity
will kill and eat Platyartlwus. With regard to its own food,
Lord Avebury has favoured us with the opinion that it lives on
the spores of the lower plants, such as would be found in the
ants' nest.

BRITISH LOCALITIES :-

England : Warley ; Han well ; West Drayton
Langley ; Kingston-on-Soar ; Bluebell Hill
Maidstone ; (W.M.W.) : Berkhamsted ; Sal
combe ; Devon ; Cheddar Cliffs, Somerset
(Norman, 49): Ide, near Exeter; (Parfitt, 53)
Torquay ; (Stebbing in 49) ; Lulworth Cove
(Rev. A. R. Hogan teste Bate and Westwood
1) : Hammersmith ; Oxford ; Berry Head, Tor
quay ; Plymouth ; (Bate and Westwood, 1) : In
the nest of Myrmica rubra, Newton Ferrers

FIG. 46.— FLAGELLUM ,,_, ^ y

AND LAST PEDUNCULAR (-t^« -E" -L.OW6J.

JOINTOFTHE ANTENNA

of Platyarthru

Hoffman nseggii

Scotland: Banff; (Thomas Edward in 49).

Ireland : Leixlip, Co. Dublin ; Lissmore, Co.
Waterford ; Glengariff, Co. Cork ; (Scharff, 63) : Bagenalstown r
Co. Carlow ; (64).

FOREIGX DlSTRIBl'Tlny :—
Europe: France; (28): Spain; (12): Denmark; Germany; Holland;
Bohemia ; Austria ; Tyrol ; Helvetia ; (59).

NOTE. — In the genera which follow, air-tubes or air-cavities
(tracheae) are present in the outer plates of the abdominal
appendages, 1 and 2, or 1 to 5. The appendages in question
have in consequence a milk-white appearance in the living
animal owing to the fact that the enclosed air reflects white
light. Considerable interest attaches to the study of these
tracheae, which have the same function as those of insects,
but which have been independently developed. To emphasise
the latter fact the structures are often termed " pseudo-
tracheae."

94

THE BRITISH W00DL1CE.

Genus— PORCELLIO Latreille, 1804(37), p. 45.
Flagellum, with two joints ; abdomen, broad; frontal lobe projecting.

Porcellio is easily separated from the previous genera — Oniscus,
Philoscia, and Platyarthrus— by its two-jointed flagellum. The
fact that the abdomen is not abruptly narrowed separates it
from Metoponorthns, which also lacks the prominent frontal lobe
so characteristic of Porcellio. The species of this genera might
be confused with Cyclisticus which has two joints to the flagellum
and a broad abdomen, but the latter genus has the power of
rolling itself into a ball, while its frontal lobe is very small, and
the first segment of its thorax is comparatively larger than in any
species of Porcellio.

Porcellio scaber Latreille. Plate XIII.

1804 Porcellio scaber Latreille (37), p. 45.

1818 Oniscus granvlatus Lamark(36), p. 261.

1818 Porcellio nigra Say (62), p. 432.

1840 Porcellio brandtii Milne-Edwardes (46), p. 168.

1840 Porcellio (labia* Koch (34), part 34, pi. VIII.

1847 Porcellio asper Koch (35), p. 207, pi. VIII. , fig. 98.

1857 Porcellio montezumse Saussure (60), p. 207.

1865 Porcellio paulensis Heller (31), p. 136. p. XII.. fig. 5.

186S Porcellio scaber Bate and Westwood (1), p.

1876 Porcellio graniger Miers (44). p. 223.

1885 Porcellio graniger Budde-Lund (8), p. 149.

1S9S Porcellio scaber Sars (^g), p. 176, pi. LXXVII.

The body of Porcellio scaber is densely covered with tubercles.
Its colour is usually of a very dark grey, but at times it is quite
red or variegated with yellow. Albino speci-
mens have been recorded. The two joints
of the flagellum are of the same length and
together equal that of the last joint of the
peduncle. Air-tubes are present in the outer
plates of the first two abdominal appendages.

BRITISH LOCALITIES :-

England: High Beach, Epping ; Warley ;
Brightlingsea ; (W.M.W.): Maldon ; (W.M.W.
from R.M.) : Langley ; Kew ; Skirmett ; Pamber
Forest; (W.M.W.) : Liphook ; (C.S.) : Stoke-
on-Trent; Kingston-on-Soar ; (W.M.W.)

Scotland : Dinnet (W.M.W. from Madame
Christen.

Ireland : Common everywhere ; (Scharff, 63.)

FOXEIGN DIS TRIE- UTION : -
Entope : Throughout ; (59) : France; (28) : Spain ; (15) :
Iceland ; (59) : Faroe Isles— Thorsharn and Naalsoe —
(R.F.S. and B.M., N. Annadale).

FIG. 47. —FLAGELLUM
ANDLAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Porcellio sccLber.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

95

America-. Greenland; North America ; Sandwich Isles; (B.M.) ; Mexico;
(59): St. Paul; St. Croix; (59); Ascension; Tristan; d'Acunha ; (23)
Asia : Ceylon ; Kamtschatka : (23).

Australia : Melbourne ; Sydney ; Tasmania ; New Zealand ; (B.M., Chilton).
Africa : Azores ; Canaries ; Cape of Good Hope ; (24)

Porcellio pictus Brandt and Ratzeburg. Plate XIV.

1833 Porcellio pictus Brandt and Razteburg (4). p. 78, pi. 12, fig. 5.

1839 Porcellio melavocephalus Koch (34), part 28, pi. XVIII.

1853 Porcellio melanocephalus Schnitzler (65), p. 24.

1856 Porcellio rnixtus Fitch (29), p 120

1868 Porcellio pictus Bate and Westvvood (1). p.

1898 Porcellio pictus Sars (59), p. 177, pi. LXXVII., fig. 1.

There are tubercles on the body of Porcellio pictus, which is a
striking looking animal. Its head is black with the lateral lobes
curved outwards ; there is a dark band down the
middle of the back and commonly two others
on each side, with more or less conspicuous
yellow markings between.

The distal (terminal) joint of the flagellum
is but half the length of the proximal one and
the last peduncular joint is longer than the
two combined.

The abdominal appendages — 1 and 2— are
provided with air-tubes.

BRITISH LOCALITIES : —

England: Maldon ; (W.M.W. from R.M.) :
Chislehurst ; (Bate and West wood, r) : Cooper's
Hill, near Cheltenham ; (Norman, 49) : Exeter;
(Parfitt, 53): Kent; (Bate and YVestwood, 1.)

Scotland : Between Leith and Portobello ;
(Scott, 68) : Cumbrae (Scott, 68a): Ayrshire;
(Boyd in Norman, 49) : Banff; (T. Edwards in Norman, 49).

Ireland: Dublin ; Belfast; Bate and YVestwood, 1): Galway
Maryborough ; Queen's Co., Castel ; and Caher Co. Tipperary ;
(R.F.S.)

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION :—
Europe: France; (25 ) : North, West-Central, and East Europe; (8):
Sweden ; Norway ; Denmark ; Germany ; Hungary ; Russia ; 59.
North America : (8).

FIG. 48. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Porcellio pit-las.

Porcellio dilatatus Brandt. Plate X\ t .

1833 Porcellio dilatatus Brandt and Ratzeburg (4), p. 78. pi. 12., fig. 6.

1840 Porcellio SCdber Milne-Edwards (not Latreille) (46), p. 167.

1868 Porcellio dilatatus Bate and Westwood (1), p.

1898 Porcellio dilatatus Sars (59), p. 179, pi. LXXVII., fig. 2.

9 6

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

The fact that Porcellio dilatatus is more than half as broad
as it is long at once distinguishes it from the other species of
Porcellio. It is tuberculated and of somewhat
a lighter grey than Povcellio scaler usually is.
The two species agree in having the two joints
of the flagellum equal, hut the last peduncular
joint, as in Porcellio pictus, is longer than the
flagellum.

As in the two preceding species, air-tubes
are found in the outer plates of the appendages
on the first two abdominal segments. Porcellio
dilatatus is to be looked for near houses.

BRITISH L CA LITIES : —

England: Maldon ; (W.M.W. from R.M.) :
Eton; (Stebbing from W.M.W., 71a): Berk-
hamsted ; (Norman, 50) : Headley, Surrey ;
Ventnor ; (Stebbing in Norman, 49).

Ireland : Dublin ; (ScharfT, 63) : Dundrum ;
(Scharffin Norman, 50) : Gal way ; Roundstone ;
(R.F.S.) : Belfast ; (C. W. Buckle, Irish Nat., Vol. XI. (1902),

P- 43)-

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION :—
Europe : France; (25) : Spain; (12J ; Denmark ; Norway ; Germany; Poland;
Holland; (59).

Africa : Madeira ; Azores ; (24).
Australia: New Guinea; (59).

FIG. 49. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Porcellio dilatatus.

Porcellio rathkei Brandt. Plate XVI.

1833 Porcellio rathkei Brandt (3), p. 177, fig. 10.

1833 Porcellio ferrngvieus Brandt (31, p. 178.

1840 Porcellio trilineatus Koch (34). part 34, pi. IX.

1853 Porcellio trivittatus Lereboullet (39), p. 54, pi. I., figs. 13 and 14.

1853 Porcellio tetramoerus Schnitzler (65), p. 24.

1853 Porcellio strialus Schnitzler (65), p. 24.

There is often a light band down the back and one on either
side of it near the margin in Porcellio rathkei (especially in the
males), with other more irregularly arranged light patches
between. Unlike the three species previously considered, the
present one has a smooth body. The distal joint of the flagellum
is the longer, and the flagellum itself is equal in length to the
last joint of the peduncle.

BRITISH WOODLICE ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol, XIV., Plate X VI.

Porcellio RATHKEI Brandt.
Length, twelve millimetres.

Charles Sillein, del, ad nat.

F. YV. Reader, sculpt.

"BRITISH Wnoi'l.H'K,

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. A'7!'., Plate XVII.

-v.ft%!

.#**

rfA*

i

PORCEI/LIO LAEVIS Latreille.
Length, sixteen millimetres.

Charles Sillem del, ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE,

Essex NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., Plate XVIII.

^*

Porcellio ratzeburgii Brandt.

Length, eleven millimetres.
Charles Sillem, del. ad nat. F, W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE. ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., Piatt XIX,

■ *m/-

M?M

Charles Sillein del. ad nat.

Metoponorthus pruiNosus Brandt*
Length, nine millimetres.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WQODLICE,

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., V1<tl< XXL

&to!SP?niM/«

^m^mtm

■ ^r^&ii

\

'

\

Cylisticus CONVEXUS De (Jeer.
Length, twelve millimetres.

Charles Sillein, del. ad nat.

F, W. Reader, sculpt.

Local Publications

BY

Benham & Co., 24, High Street, Colchester.

THE ESSEX REVIEW. Published Quarterly. Edited by Edward
A. Fitch and Miss C. Fell Smith. Demy 8vo. 64 pages, is. 6d.
post free. A fully illustrated Quarterly Review of all that is of per-
manent interest in Essex. Established 1892. Back Volumes may be had
bound in cloth, price 7s. 6d. each, excepting the earlier volumes, which
are 21s. each.

Annual subscription, if paid in advance, 5s., including free delivery.
"The best of the county magazines."

THE RED PAPER BOOK OF COLCHESTER. Transciibed
and Translated by \V. Gurney Benham. Crown 4to. Fully Indexed.
A volume crowded with local information hitherto unpublished. 25s. nett.

GUIDE TO COLCHESTER. By \V. Gurney Benham. Crown 8vo.
140 pp. Over 100 illustrations. 6d. ; by post 8d.

COLCHESTER DIRECTORY AND ALMANAC, id. ; by post 3d.

Cloth 6d. ; by post 8d.
COLCHESTER OYSTER FEAST. Its History and Toast Lists.

Profusely illustrated. An amusing and unique volume. Demy 4to.

5s. nett. By post 5s. 41! .
ESSEX BALLADS, and other Poems. By Charles F. Benham.

Third Edition. Prefatory note by the Riglit Hon. the Countess of

Warwick, is. 6d. ; by post, is. 8d.
WILLIAM GILBERT, of COLCHESTER. A sketch of his Magnetic

Philosophy. By Chas. E. Bknham. 2s. nett. Post free 2s. 2d.
ANCIENT TOKENS of COLCHESTER. By Ernest N. Mason.

Fully illustrated descriptive, and historical account of the tokens issued in

Colchester in the 17th and 18th centuries. 5s. nett. By post 5s. 2d.
GUIDE TO COLCHESTER CASTLE. By Charles E. Benham,

8 illustrations. Demy 8vo., 6d. ; by post, ;d.
COLCHESTER NEW TOWN HALL. By Wilson MarriAGE

and W. Gurney Benham. Fully Illustrated. Demy 4to. Second

edition. 1900. 2s.; bv post, 2s. 3d.
COLCHESTER TOWN HALL Illustrated. Fcap, 8vo. 32 pages,

3d. ; bv post 3^d.
OLD COLCHESTER. A few chapters for young Colchester. By

Qharlks E. Benham. Illustrated, is. ; by post, is. 3d.
AMONG THE TOMBS OF COLCHESTER. Full account of

local monuments, tablets, epitaphs, Sec bd. ; by post, 7d.
ANCIENT LEGENDS CONNECTED WITH THE ARMS OF

COLCHESTER. By W. Gurney Benham. Illustrated explanation

of the Arms, with the Stoiies of St. Helen and King Coel. Demy 8vo.

3d. ; bv post, 4d.
TWO LEGENDS OF COLCHESTER. By Alfred P. Wire.

Illustrated by W. Gurney Benham. Demy 8vo. 3d. ; by post, 3^d.
OLD KING COEL. By Charles E. Benham. Fcap. 8vo. Price 2d. ;

by post, uk
THE TENDRING HUNDRED IN THE OLDEN TIME.

Bv ]. Yei.loly Watson, F.G.S., J. P. 5s. ; bv post, 5s. 4d.
NOTES on the GEOLOGY and ARCHEOLOGY of WALTON,

CLACTON and DISTRICT. By H. Slopes, F.G.S., and W. H.

Dalton, F.G.S., 6d. ; by post, 7d
MALDON. By Edward A. Fitch, ex-Mayor of Maldon. Illustrated.

1888. Fcap. 8vo. Paper cover. Price 3d , by post, 3 |d.
KING COEL POSTCARDS. Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, 6d.
THE ESSEX LABOURER, DRAWN FROM LIFE. By W. G. B.

Illustrations. 4to., 6d. ; bv post 6^.
COLCHESTER WORTHIES POSTCARDS. Gilberd, Harsnett,

Audley, and Grimston. Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, id.

XTbe jfauna anb tfiovn oi Esser,

As Illustrated in the
Essex Museum of Natural History.

I have great pleasure in announcing that the Essex Museum
of Natural History has now been furnished with four blocks of
handsome Cabinets intended to contain a County series of
Insects, Mollusca, and Crustacea. Several new Wall-cases are
being made so as to suitably accommodate the Collection of
British Mammalia, which has lately received numerous additions,
including models (the work of Sherrin Bros.) of the Essex
Cetacea. We have also constructed eight Herbaria Cabinets, to
house the series of specimens of Flowering Plants, Mosses, Algae
Lichens, &c. More space can now be allotted to the collection
illustrating the works of Early Man, and this is also being re-
arranged. Work on these collections will now betaken in hand,,
and it is hoped that they will prove helpful to students, and will
lead to a greater interest being taken in the Essex Fauna and
Flora. To aid in this work we are acquiring some of the best
Faunistic books on British Natural History, which will be
available for consultation in the Museum itself.

I need not point out to my fellow Members and friends the
great difficulty often experienced in obtaining authentic specimens
from a limited district. I should highly esteem any aid that
County and London Collectors could afford. Localised
specimens of Essex Birds, Fish and Mammals, Insects of all
orders, Land and Freshwater and Marine Shells, Plants, etc., if
in good condition, will be of the greatest assistance, and donors
will have the satisfaction of knowing that their specimens will
be properly preserved, and will be available for study in the future*
Birds, Fish and Mammals in the flesh may be forwarded
direct to the Taxidermists, Messrs. Sherrin Bros., 38, Fielding
Road, Chiswick, London, W. A post card should precede the
specimens. Carriage may be charged forward.

William Cole,

Hon. Secretary and Curator*
Essex Museum of Nat. Hist.,
Romford Road,

Stratford, Essex.
October, 1905.

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY.
Price to Non-M embers, 5s. per part, post jrcc.

Part IY., Vol. XIV.] [JANUARY, 1906.

The

Essex Naturalist :

BEING THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ESSEX FIELD CLUB,

EDITED BY

WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Honoiaiy Secretary and Curator.

QTcmtcnts.

PAG If

The British Woodlice. By Wilfred Mark Were, F.L.S., and
Charlhs Si li. em [Wtth Twenty-five Plates ami numerous
Illustrations.) Concluded . . . . . . . . 97

[This Part contains the final Instalment (4) of the Twenty-five
Plates by Air. C. Sille/n, for the illustration of the Monograph
on the British Woodlice.

The Bog-Mosses (Sphagnaceae) of Essex : A Contribution to

the Flora of the County. By Fred. J. Chittenden .. 111

Presentation to Mr. William Cole. A Report. By Miller

Christy, F.L.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 117

Notes— Original and Selected 135

The Authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinions contained in
their respective papers.

PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX.

Entered Stationers' Hall.] [Published January, 1906

Editorial communications to W. Cole, " Springfield," Buckhurst Hill, Essex,
and Advertisements to Messrs. Benham and Co., Printers, Colchester.

TLhe jfauna anb fiova of Essey,

As Illustrated in the
Essex Museum of Natural History.

I have great pleasure in announcing that the Essex Museum
of Natural History has now been furnished with four blocks of
handsome Cabinets intended to contain a County series of
Insects, Mollusca, and Crustacea. Several new Wall-cases have
been made so as to suitably accommodate the Collection of
British Mammalia, which has lately received numerous additions,
including models (the work of Sherrin Bros.) of the Essex
Cetacea. We have also constructed eight Herbaria Cabinets, to
house the series of specimens of Flowering Plants, Mosses, Algae
Lichens, &c. More space can now be allotted to the collection
illustrating the works of Early Man, and this is also being re-
arranged. Work on these collections will now be taken in hand,
and it is hoped that they will prove helpful to students, and will
lead to a greater interest being taken in the Essex Fauna and
Flora. To aid in this work we are acquiring some of the best
Faunistic books on British Natural History, which will be
available for consultation in the Museum itself.

I need not point out to my fellow Members and friends the
great difficulty often experienced in obtaining authentic specimens
from a limited district. I should highly esteem any aid that
County and London Collectors could afford. Localised
specimens of Essex Birds, Fish and Mammals, Insects of all
orders, Land and Freshwater and Marine Shells, Plants, etc., if
in good condition, will be of the greatest assistance, and donors
will have the satisfaction of knowing that their specimens will
be properly preserved, and will be available for study in the future.

Birds, Fish and Mammals in the flesh may be forwarded
direct to the Taxidermists, Messrs. Sherrin Bros., 38, Fielding
Road, Chiswick, London, W. A post card should precede the
specimens. Carriage may be charged forward.

William Cole,

Hon. Secretary and Curator.
Essex Museum of Nat. Hist.,
Romford Road,

Stratford, Essex.
January, 1906.

BRITISH WOODLICE.

F.ssKX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., Plate XXII.

Armadillidium nasatum Budde-Lund.

Length, fifteen millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. \V. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOOD LICK.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., Plate XXIII.

Armadillidium VULGARE Latreille.
Length, fifteen millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. A'/ 1'.. Plate XXIV

,v.*'s'V'

**-**'

Armadillidium pulchellum Zencker,
Length, five millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

BRITISH WOODLICE. ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., Plate XXV

ArmadiF.lidium depressum Brandt.

Length, fifteen millimetres.

Charles Sillem, del. ad nat.

F. W. Reader, sculpt.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

97

Some specimens found by Mr. Webb in 1899 at Eton were
submitted to Mr. Stebbing, and since then the former has
found Porcellio rathkei to be pretty generally distributed in West
Middlesex, where the species appears to frequent the open fields.

Air-tubes occur in abdominal appendages
1 to 5 and the white appearance of all of these
at once serves to distinguish the living animal
from Porcellio scabev in which the first two pairs
of abdominal appendages alone are white.

BRITISH LOCALITIES :—

England : Eton ; (Stebbing, 71a) : Lane End ;
(Stebbing, from the Misses Johnston, 71a) :
Acton ; Ealing ; Hanwell ; Southall ; Northolt ;
-Greenford ; West Drayton ; Mortlake ; (W.M. W.) :
Sunderland ; (Brady, 50a).

FOREIGN DISTRIB UTION :—

Europe : France ; (25): Bosnia; Servia ; (22); Hertzo-
govauia (B.M.) ; Norway ; Northern, Western, and Middle
Europe, everywhere; (59) : Corfu (B.M.)

Asia • Transcaucasia ; (59).

North America : (59).

Porcellio laevis Latreille. Plate XVII.

FIG. 50. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTF.NNA

of Porcellio rathkei.

1804 Porcellio laevis Latreille (37), p. 46.

1827 Porcellio degeerii Savigny and Audouin (61), p. 289.

1833 Porcellio cucercus Brandt (3). p. 177.

1833 Porcellio syriacus Brandt (3), p 178.

1833 Porcellio musculus Brandt (3), p. 180.

1833 Porcellio cinerascens Brandt (3), p. 178.

1833 Porcellio dubius Brandt (3), p. 178.

1837 Porcellio poeyi Gnei in (30), p. 6.

1844 Porcellio urb'icus Koch (34), part 36, pi. IV.

1847 Porcellio Jiavipes Koch (35), p. 206, pi. VIII. , fig. 97.

1853 Cylisticus laevis Schnitzler (65), p. 25.

1857 Porcellio cubensis Saussure (60). p. 307.

1857 Porcellio siimichtasii Saussure (60), p. 307.

1857 Porcellio cotillx Saussure (60), p. 307.

1857 Porcellio aztecus Saussure (6o>, p. 307.

1857 Porcellio mexicanus Saussure (60), p. 307.

Another smooth species is Porcellio laevis.
The colour of its body is light grey with
irregular white markings. The large size of
this species and the very long tail-appendages
of the males are features which will help to
identify it. The distal joint of the flagellum is
joint ofthe antenna s ]ip;htlv the longer and as in the last species

of Porcellio laevis. b J & .

(P. rathkei) the flagellum is equal in length to
the last joint of the peduncle. The chief habitats for this species
are among vegetable rubbish near human dwellings.

Only the first two abdominal appendages contain air-tubes.

fig. 51.— flagellum
and last peduncular

9 8

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

BRITISH LOCA I.ITIES : —

England: Maldon ; (W.M.W. from R.M.) : Ipswich (1892);
Hanwell ; Wimbledon ; (W.M.W.) : Kent ; (Kinahan 32)

Ireland: Dublin; (Bate and Westvvood, 1) : Blackrock ;.
Dundrum ; Co. Dublin ; Galway ; (R.F.S.)

FOREIGN DISTRIBUIION:-

Europe : Fiance; (25): Spain; (15): Sicily; (19): Hertzogovania ; (22):
Sweden; Denmark; Germany; Belgium; Austria; Italy; Dalmatia ; Greece;
Turkey ; (59) ; Corfu ; (B.M.) : Inca, Majorca (23) ; (B.M.— Pocock and
Thomas.)

Asia: Syria; Turkestan; (21).

Africa : Morocco ; Algeria ; Tunis ; Tripoli ; Senegal ; Egypt ; (23).

Atlantic Isles ; Bermudas ; Azores ; Canaries ; Cape Vera ; Madeira ; (24).

America: North America; Mexico; Peru; Brazil; Chili; West Indies,*;
Pacific Islands ; (59) ; Sandwich Isles ; (B.M.)

Porcellio ratzeburgii Brandt. Plate XVIII.

1S33 Porcellio ratzeburgii Brandt, (3), p. 178.

1839 Porcellio nemorensU Koch (34), part 28. pi. XIX.

1839 Porcellio lugubris Koch (34), part 28, pi. XX.

1853 Porcellio quercum Schnitzler (65), p. 24.

189S Porcellio ratzeburgii Sars (59), p. 182, pi. LXXX, fig. 1.

There are granulations on the middle of the segments in
Porcellio ratzeburgii and the sides of its body are more nearly-
parallel than in the other species of Porcellio ;
the frontal lobe is, practically speaking, semi-
circular and the lateral plates of the thorax
flank the head to a considerable extent. As in
Porcellio pictus, the dark band is in the middle of
the back. The distal joint of the flagellum is
nearly twice as long as the proximal, and the
flagellum is shorter than the last joint of the
peduncle. This species was added to the
British list by Mr. Webb (74) in 1898.

Porcellio ratzeburgii agrees with Porcellio
rathkei in having air- tubes in the first five
abdominal appendages.

BRITISH LOCALITIES:—

England : Warley ; Brightlingsea ; young

FIG. 52.— FLAGELLUM _-. - . _. .. .

and last peduncular examples (vV.M.vv .) : Maldon ; young examples

JOINT OF THE ANTENNA "D T\ T \

of Potcellio ratzeburgii (W.M.W. irom K.M.)

FOREIGX DISTRIBUTION : —
Europe : Trafoi St. Martini, and Capitello, in the Tyrol ; (Norman, 50) ;
East Alps, very common ; Val-de-Joux ; Massif de la Chartreuse Vaulnaveys (25) :
Bosnia; (22): Norway; Central Europe ; Upper Pfaltz; Bohemia; Saxony;.
Rhaetia ; (59).

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

99

Gm«-METOPONORTHUS Budde-Lund, 1879 (7), p.4

Porccllionides Miers, 1876 (44), p. 98.
Flagellum, ivith two joints ; abdomen, narrow ; frontal lobe not

developed.
The hinder legs of Metoponorthus are proportionately longer
than in any other Oniscidae save Philoscia. Both genera have a
narrow abdomen, but Philoscia has an extra joint to the flagellum,
and shows no sign of lateral lobes to the head.

Metoponorthus pruinosus Brandt. Plate XIX.

1833 Porcellio pruinosus Brandt (3), p. i8r.

1840 Porcellio truncatus Milne-Edwards (46), p. 173

1840 Porcellio maculicornis Koch (34), part 34, pi. XVI.

1853 Porcellio frontalis Lereboullet (39), p. 63, pi. I, fig. 17.

1868 Porcellio pruinosus Bate and Westwood (1), p. 487.

1877 Porcellio (Porcellioicles) flavo-vittntus Miers (45), p. 669 pi., LXVIII.,

fig. 4.

1898 Metoponorthus pruinosus Sars (59), p. 184, 'pi. LXXX., fig. 2.

Undamaged specimens of Metoponorthus pruinosus are of a
beautiful bluish-grey colour, owing to a "bloom" which is
easily brushed off, revealing a dark reddish -
brown tint beneath it. The antennae are long
and have white markings upon them.

Air-tubes occur in the first two abdominal
appendages.

BRITISH LOCALITIES :—

England: Maldon ; (W.M.W. from R.M.) :
Hanwell ; Eton Wick ; Kew ; Ipswich; Stoke-
on-Trent; (W.M.W.) : Chiselhurst; Oxford;
(Bate and Westwood): Berkhamsted ; Burn-
moor ; Durham ; (Norman, 49) : Exeter ;
(Parfitt, 53) ; Torquay ; (B.M.— T.R.R.S.)

Scotland : Banff ; (Thomas Edwards in
Norman, 49),

Ireland : Dublin ; (Kinahan, 32) : Foyle Dis-
trict ; Donegal ; Galway ; Clonbrock, Co.
Galway ; Mornington, Co. Meath ; Santry ;
Gleeson Park ; Dundrum, Co. Dublin ; Bray ; (R.F.S.)

FIG. 53.— FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Metoponorthus
pruinosus.

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION :—
Europe : Practically all die Countries of Europe are given in Dollfus' list ; (23).
Asia : Japan ; China ; Syria ; Ceylon ; Sumatra ; Celebes ; Phillipines ;
Caucasus; Himalayas; (23) : Christmas Island; (B,M.)

Africa', Generally distiibuted; Madagascar; Seychelles; (23).

100

THE BRITISH VV00DLICE.

Atlantic Isles ; (23).

America: North and South, almost everywhere, to judge from M. Dollfus'
list; (23).

Australia : New Caledonia ; (23).

Metoponorthus cingendus Kinahan. Plate XX.

1857 Porcellio cingendus Kinahan (32), p. 279, pi. XIX., figs. 1468-9.
1868 Porcellio cingendus Bate and Westwood (1), p. 489.
1885 Metoponorthus simplex Budde-Lund (8), p. 188.

The colour of Metoponorthus cingendus is steel blue with red
or yellowish spots. It has a raised line across
each thoracic segment and its abdomen is
narrower than in Metoponorthus pvuinosus.

BRITISH LOCALITIES:—

England : Salcombe, Devon ; (Norman, 49) :
South Devon ; (Stebbing in 49).

Ireland: Dublin; (B.M. from Kinahan);
Mountain Districts of Dublin, Wicklow, and
Cork; Coast of Kerry; Arran Islands; Achill,
Co. Mayo ; Roundstone, Co. Gahvay ; Mallow,
Caef Island ; Glandore ; Brock Haven, Co.
Cork ; Killoughrim Forest, Co. Wexford ;
Kenmare, Co. Kerry ; (R.F.S.).

FIG. 54.— FLAGELI.UM
AND LASTPEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Metoponorthus
cingendus.

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION
Europe : France ; (25) : Spain ; (12).

(2.) Able to roll up into a ball.

Genus— CYLISTICUS Schnitzler, 1853 (65), p. 24.
Flagellum, with two joints ; abdomen broad ; frontal lobe, very small.
The characters given immediately above are almost those of
Porcellio, with which Cylisticus might, perhaps, be confounded. The
latter. has the power, however, of rolling itself into a ball, and the
first segment of the thorax is comparatively larger than in any
species of Porcellio, indeed the side plates of the segment in
question entirely flank the head. These features, as well as the
straight sides of the body and the arched back, connect Cylisticus
with Armadillidium, from which the former is, however, at once
separated by its long pointed tail appendages.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

IOI

Cylisticus convexus De Geer. Plate XXI.

1778 Oniscui* convexus De Geer (10), p. 553, pi. XXXV., fig. 11.

1833 PorceUio spinijrons Brandt (3), p. 177.

1836 PorceUio laevis Koch (34), part 6. pi. I.

1853 PorceUio armadilloides Lereboullet (39), p. 65. pi. I., fig. 18.

1853 Cylisticus laevis Schnitzler (65). p. 25.

1868 PorceUio armadilloides Bate and Westvvood (1), p. 485.

1898 Cylisticus convexus Sars (59), p. 186, p. LXXXI.

There is but a single species of Cylisticus found in this
country, so that it is not necessary for us to go into much further
detail with regard to it. Cylisticus convexus has
the two joints of the flagellum about equal, and
they together in turn closely approximate in
length to the last joint of the peduncle. Mr.
Stebbing says, in a letter, that British examples
do not appear to have the "white tail-piece"
seen in Continental ones. It is not noticeable
in the preserved specimens which we have seen
from Berkhamsted and Leixlip, but it is very
evident in the living ones found at Hanwell and
Maidstone.

The abdominal appendages i to 5 are
provided with air-tubes.

BRITISH LOG A LITIES : -

England: Maldon ; (W.M.W. from R.M.) :
Hanwell; Bluebell Hill, Maidstone; Eton;
(W. M.W.J : Berkhamsted ; Portland ; (Norman,

49)-

Scotland : Salisbury Crags ; Edinburgh ; Lan-
arkshire ; Rothesay; (Scott, 68): Killwinning; (John Smithy
Robertson, 57): Highgate; (Bate and Westwood, 1).

Ireland: Leixlip, Co. Dublin; Tempo, Co. Fermanagh;
Goresbridge, Co. Kilkenny ; (R.F.S.)

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION :—
Europe-. France; (25): Sweden; Norway; Denmark; Germany ; Bohemia ;
Holland ; Belgium ; Turkey ; Caucasus ; (59).
North America ; (59).

FIG. 55. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Cylisticus convexu*.

102

THE BRITISH W00DLICE.

Family— ARMADILL.IDUD JE.

Tail appendages not projecting when the animal
is walking.

Genus— ARMADILLIDIUM Brandt, 1833 (3), p. 184.

Flagellum, with two joints ; outer division of the tail appendages
expanded and broader at the hinder end.

The members of the genus Armadillidium are more likely to
be confounded, by the uninitiated, with the " Pill-millipedes "
than with other Woodlice. Excepting Cylisticus (which has
long pointed tail appendages) no other British forms have the
power of rolling themselves up into a complete ball. The
very arched body is characteristic of Armadillidium, and so is
the groove into which the basal joints of the antennae fit when
the creatures curl up.

The first two abdominal appendages only are provided with
air-tubes.

Armadillidium nasatum Budde-Lund,
1885. Plate XXII:

1885 A rmadillidiiim nasatum Budde-Lund (8), p. 51.
1892 Armadillidium nasatum Dolltus (14), p. 10, fig. 12.
1899 Armadillidium nasatum Norman (misprinted Porcdlidium)
<49>> P. 57, pi. VI., figs. 5-8.

Armadillidium nasatum has a narrow but very
prominent frontal lobe, which is almost square
and curves somewhat upwards and backwards.
The joints of the flagellum are approximately
equal, and are together of the same length as
the last peduncular joint.

The telson is as long as it is broad at the
base, and tapers to a roundish point, while its
sides are slightly incurved.

The outer divisions of the tail appendages
are considerably longer than broad, and are
more or less paddle-shaped.

It will be noticed that the slope from thorax
to telson is more gentle than in the common species, A rmadillidiiim
vulgave, and the first thoracic segment is not so greatly developed.
Consequently the species which we are considering does not
produce a perfect sphere, and the antennae are not hidden when

FIG. 56. — FLAGELLUM
AND LAST PEDUNCULAR
JOINT OF THE ANTENNA

of Armadillidium

nasatum.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE,

IO3

it rolls up. It is interesting to compare this species with Cylisticus
convexus. The surface of the body is smooth, and its colour is a
delicate brownish grey with more or less distinct rows of darker
markings.

BRITISH LOCALITIES : -

England : Maldon ; (W.M.W. from R.M.) : Bluebell Hill,
Maidstone (W.M.W.); Clifton, banks of the Avon; (W.M.W.
from J.T.C. 1900) : Leigh Woods, Clifton ; Tunbridge Wells ;
South Devon; (Stebbing in 49); Cheddar Cliffs, Somerset;
.(Norman, 49).

FOREIGN BIS TRIB U TIOX : —
Europe : Fiance ; (28) : Spain ; (12) : Italy ; (23).

Armadillidium vulgare Latreille. Plate XXIII.

1804 Armadillo vulgaris Latreille (37), p. 48.
Latreille (37).

1804 Armadillo variegatui

1853 Armadillo atcr Schnitzler (65), p." 48.

1816 Armadillo maculalus Kisso (56). p. 158.

1818 Armadillo pillularis Say (621, p. 432.

1825 Armadillo bustulosub Dermarest (11), p. 323, pi. XLIX.

1830-4 A rmadillidium commutatum Brandt and Ratzeburg (4), p. 81,

XIII., hg, 123.
1833 Armadillidium zenckeri Brandt (3), p. 185.
1839 Armadillo trie talis Koch (34), part 28, pi. XIV.
1898 Armadillidium vulgare Sars (59), p. 189, pi, LXXXIL

Pi.

Armadillidium vulgare. Its
is broad, while its margin

The common pill woodlouse is
frontal lobe is not large, though it
where it joins the head is rounded and slightly
recurved. The proximal joint of the flagellum
is somewhat the shorter and the two together,
as in Armadillidium nasatum, are of about the
same length as the last joint of the peduncle.

The telson has the form of a triangle with
the angles truncated and is about as long as it
is broad at the base. The outer divisions of
the tail appendages are considerably broader
than they are long.

The species can roll itself up into a very
perfect sphere, and when it assumes this form
its antennae are hidden beneath the much
expanded lateral plates of the first thoracic
segment. fig. 57.— flagellum

r^ ... ... . , AND LAST PEDUNCULAR

1 he body is smooth, shiny, and strongly jointofthk antenna

, T . . . , , , of Armadillidium

arched. Its colour varies very considerably, vulgare.

generally it is ot a slaty-grey, but yellow mark-
ings are often present to a greater or less extent. In a specimen
before us (from Bluebell Hill, Maidstone) the head is of a

104

THE BRITISH W00DLICE.

uniform dark grey, the sides of the thorax are yellow, while the
back is mottled with the same colour. The abdomen, including
the telson, is also yellow with the exception only of the tail
appendages, which are dark grey.

BRITISH LOCALITIES :—

England : Warley ; (W.M.W) : Maldon ; (W.M.W. from
R.M.): Brightlingssa; Hanwell ; Mortlake; Bluebell Hill, Maid-
stone ; Langley ; Skirmett ; Pamber Forest ; Kingston-on-Soar ;
Ipswich ; (W.M.W.) ; Lynmouth ; (W.M.W. from J.T.C.)

Scotland : (Scott, 68.)

Ireland: Ardrahan ; (Norman, 50): Borris, Co. Carlow ;
Glandare, Terneay, Co. Cork ; Courtstown, Co. Wexford ;
Cappagh, Co. Waterford ; Castel, Co. Tipperary ; (R.F.S.)

FOREIGN DIS TRIB U TIOX : -
Europe : Throughout ; (23).
Asia : Damascus ; (23).
Africa : Algeria ; (23).
Atlantic Isles : (23).
America: North and Soui.ii ; (23^.
Australia : Melbourne (64 quoting Budde-Lund) ; New Zealand ; (23).

Armadillidium pulchellum Zencker. Plate
XXIV.

1799 Oniscus pulchellus Zencker (78) (quoted by Koch in

Panzer), part 62, pi. XXI.
1833 Armadillidium pulchellum Brandt (3), p. 188.
1861 Armadillo maculatus Sill (69), p 5.
1870 Armadillidium pictum Plateau (not Brandt) (55), p. 116.
1898 Armadillidium pulchellum Sars (59), p. 191, pi.

LXXXIII., tig. 4.

The smallest British species is Armadillidium
pulchellum. The frontal lobe projects so as to
make the head somewhat triangular. The
antennae are very short and the distal joint of
the flagellum is three times the length of the
other, while the two together are not as long as
the last peduncular joint.

The telson is truncated at the end so that
fig. 58.-FLAGELLUM it is by no means as long as it is broad at the

ANDLASTPEDUNCULAR , , (1 -. . . r ,, . ..

jointofthe antenna base, and the outer divisions of the tail appen-

of Armadillidium , ...

pulchellum. dages are in similar proportion.

The colour of the body (which is smooth) is
dark brown with four important series of light patches running
down the back and less marked variegations between them.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

IO5

BRITISH LOCALITIES :—

England : Matlock ; (T.R.R.S.) Arnside ; Westmorland
(Brady, 50a).

Ireland : Ballytnote, (Irish Nat., May, 1901), Sligo ; (Scharff ).

FOREIGN DIS TRIB U TION :—
Europe : Vosges ; Switzerland ; Pyrenees ; (23) : Forest de Soignes ; Belgium ;

(14).

Armadillidium depressum Brandt. Plate XXV.

1833
1892

Armadillidium depressum Brandt (3), p. 82. pi. XII.
Armadillidium depressum Dollfus (14), p. 17-18.

figs, 4, 5, 6, C, D.

The frontal lobe in Armadillidium depressum is very prominent
and much recurved. The antennae are fairly
long and while the two joints of the flagellum
are nearly equal they are together not so long
as the last peduncular joint.

The telson is slightly longer than it is broad
at the base, and its sides are incurved. As in
A rmadillidium vulgare and A rmadillidium pulchellum
the outer divisions of the tail appendages are
broader than they are long.

The body is natter than in the other species
and bears tubercles ; its colour is a slate-grey
with yellowish markings. The first thoracic
segment is well developed and the head appears
as if almost completely imbedded in it.

FIG. 59. — FLAGELLUM
ANDLASTPEDUNCULAR
JOINTOFTHE ANTENNA

of Armadillidium,
dejjressum.

from Miers 14).

BRITISH LOCALITIES :-

England : Clifton, banks of the Avon ;
(W.M.W. from J.T.C., 1900): Shirehampton,
near Bristol ; (Stebbingin 49) : Clifton ; (Dollfus

FOREIGN DISTRIBUTION :—
Europe: France; Italy ; (25) : Asia Minor ; (14, quoting Brandt).

Distribution of Species. There are not sufficient records
at present to enable us to draw any conclusions as to the general
distribution of Woodlice in the British Isles, but it is hoped that
more attention will be given to these creatures, and that before
long there may be other material available.

Conclusion. kS. the beginning it was mentioned that the
present work grew out of an investigation into the fauna of
Essex, and in order to show what may be expected when places

106 THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

are explored in which no collecting has been done, we may
briefly indicate the results which we obtained in the county in
question.

It was not long before a species new to Britain — to wit,
Porcellio rat zeburgii — was found (74). This discovery was men-
tioned by Mr. Stebbing in the Victoria County History of Essex
(p. 71), and he prophesied that most of the British species then
would be met with in the county. We may safely claim to have
shown that his prediction was true, for we have been able to
record in the preceding pages no less than sixteen other species,
as will be seen from the following lists : —

WOODLICE RECORDED EROM ESSEX.
Ligia oceanica 10. Porcellio pictus

Ligidium hypnonim 11. Porcellio ditatatus

Trichoniscus pusillus 1 2. Porcellio laevis

Trichoniscus rose us 13. Porcellio rat zeburgii

Haplophthalmns danicus 14. Metoponorthus pruinosus

Oniscus aselhis 15. Cylisticus convex us

Philoscia muscorum 16. Armadillidium nasatum

Platyarthrus hoffmannseggii 17. Armadillidium vulgare
Porcellio scaler

Of these Ligidium hypnorum calls for special mention, as it
had not been found in this country since Mr. Stebbing discovered
it in Surrey in 1873. Several of the Porcellios and Cylisticus
convexus have been met with in but few places, and the same may
be said of Armadillidium nasatum.

Of the British species not as yet found in,* Essex Trichoniscus
vividus has at present only been recorded from Ireland ; Philoscia
couchii and Armadillidium depressum have not been collected
except in the extreme south west of England, while
Metoponorthus cingendus has hitherto only been noticed in
Devonshire and Ireland. The other four species, with the
exception of Porcellio rathkei, which is well distributed in west
Middlesex (and might have been expected to occur in Essex),
are still rare. In fact, for Trichoniscoides albidus but two British
localities are known ; for Haplophthalmns mengii three (two in
England and one in Ireland) ; while Armadillidium pulchelhim has
only been recorded from two or three places.

In other counties quite as satisfactory results were obtained
as in Essex— a systematic search in Buckinghamshire brought to

THE BRITISH W00DLIC2. I07

light at Eton three species which at the time had not been
recorded from the British Isles, while in Middlesex, no less than
a dozen species were found at Harwell.

Since part of this contribution was printed our attention has
been drawn to some notes by the Rev. Canon Norman and
Professor G. S. Brady (50a). These bear out the remarks which
have already been made, for among the species found by
Professor Brady in the north of England were Tviclwniscoides
albidus, Haplophthalmus mengii, Porcellio rathkei, and Avmadillidium
pulchellum. In one of Canon Norman's previous papers (50 —
1903) he claims to have added the second species to the
British list, and in the notes in question a similar claim is made
with regard to the first and third. It should, however, be
pointed out that all three of them were found in Buckingham-
shire in 1899 by Mr. Webb, and that they were exhibited at
the Nature Study Exhibition held in London in August, 1902.
A specimen of Avmadillidium pulchellum from Matlock was sent
to us by the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing in January, 1904, and was
found, we understand, some considerable time previously.

It only remains for us to express our hearty thanks to the
numerous friends and correspondents who have given us their
ready help. The names of these have been printed in the text,
but we would like to mention more particularly Dr. Caiman, of
the British Museum (Natural History), Monsieur Adrian
Dollfus, Mr. Roland Matthams, the Rev. Canon Norman, Dr.
ScharfT, the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, and Miss Willmott.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Explanation of the initials given in the text : —
B.M. — Specimens in the British Museum (Natural History).
C.S.— Charles Sillem. T.R.R.S.— The Rev. Thomas R. R.

J.T.C.— John Thomas Carrington. Stebbing.

J.A.M.— James A. Muri.e. W.M.W.— Wilfred Mark Webb.

R.M.— Roland Matthams. R.W.— R. Welch.

R.F.S.— R. F. Scharff.

(1) BATE, C. S PENCE, and WEST WOOD, J.C. : A history of the British,

Sessile-eyed Crustacea, London, 1868.

(2) BOSC, L. A. G. : Manuel de Vhlstolre Naturelle des Crustaces. Vol. II.,

Paris, 1830.

(3) BRANDT, J. F. : "Conspectus Monographiae Crustaceorum Oniscodorum

Latreillei," Bull. Sac. Nat., Moscow. Vol. VI. (1833), pp. 171-193.

(4) BRANDT, J. F., and RATZEBURG, J. T. C. : Medizinische Zoologie.

Vol. II., Berlin, 1830-1834.

108 THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

(5) BRUXTZ, L., " Contribution a V Etude de l'Excretion chez les

Arthropodes." Archives de Biologie. Vol. XXII. (Nov., 1903) r
pp. 215-422, pis. I. -VIII.

(6) BUDDE-LUND, G. : " Danraarks Isopode Landkrebsdyr," Naturhistorisk

Tidsskrift. Part 3, vol. VII. (1870, pp. 217-245).

(7) BUDDE-LUND, G. : Prospectus generum specierumque Crustaceorum

Iso pedum terrestrium. Copenhagen, 1879.

(8) BUDDE-LUND, G. : Crustacea Isopoda Terrestria. Hauniae, 1885.

(9) CUVIEK, G. : "Memoires sur les Cloportes terrestres." Journ. d'hist.

nat. Vol. II. 1792.

(10) DE GEER, C. : Memoires pour servir a Vhistoire des insectes. Vol.

VII., Stockholm, 1778.

(11) DESMAREST, A.G. : Considerations generates sur la classe des

Crustaces. Paris, 1825.

(12) DOLLFUS, A.: "Catalogue raisonne des Isopodes terrestres de

l'Espagne." Ann. Sue. Espan. Hist. Nat. Vol. XXL (1892),
pp. 161- 190.

(13) DOLLFUS, A. : " Sur la Distribution Geographique des Isopodes

terrestres dans la region des Basses-Pyrenees." Assoc. Francaise pour
Favancement des Sciences. Rep. Congress de Pau., 1892.

(14) DOLLFUS, A. : " Le Genre Armadillidium." Feu. des Jeunes Natural-

istes, Ser. 3. May 1892.

(15) DOLLFUS, A. : " Catalogue raisonne des Isopodes terrestres de

l'Espagne." Premier supplement, Ann. Soc. Espan. Hist. A r at.
Vol. XXII. (1893), pp. 47-51.

(16) DOLLFUS, A. : " Isopodes Terrestres in ' Voyage de M. Ch. Allmand aux

lies Canaries.' " Mem. Soc. Zoo/, de France. Vol. VI. (1893), P- 46.

(17) DOLLFUS, A. : " Sur la Distribution Geographique des Armadilliens en

Europe." Com pte- Rendu troisieme Congres. Internal, de Zoo/. Leyden,
Sept. 1895 ( 1896), pp. 356-358.

(18) DOLLFUS, A. : " Les Isopodes terrestres du Nord de l'Afrique du Cap.

Blanc a Tripoli." Mem. Soc. Zoo/. Trans. Vol. IX. (1896), pp.

5 2 3-553-

(19) DOLLFUS, A. : Crustaces Isopodes de /a Sici/e. 1896.

(20) DOLLFUS, A.: "On West Indian Isopod Crustaceans." Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond. 1896, pp. 388-400.

(21) DOLLFUS, A.: "Tableau Iconographique des Philoscia d'Europe."

Feu.des Jeun. Natural. Ser. 3, 1897, pp. 70-73 and 91-95.

(22) DOLLFUS, A. : " Land Isopods der Balkan region." Wissenschaft

Mittheilung aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina. Vol. IV. (1896).

(23) DOLLFUS, A. : " Les Crustaces Isopodes Terrestres a grande dispersion,"

Feu des Jeun. Natural. Ser. 3 (Oct. 1897).

(24) DOLLFUS, A. : " Sur la Distribution Geographique des Isopodes

Terrestres dans l'Afrique Septentrional du Senegal a Obock." Proc.
Inter. Congres. Zool. Cambridge, 1898, pp. 249-259.

(25) DOLLFUS, A.: "Catalogue des Crustaces Isopodes Terrestres de

France." Feu. des Jeun. Natural. Ser. 3 (October 1899).

(26) FABRICIUS, J. C. : Entomologia systematica. Vol. II., Hauniae, 1 793.

(27) FABRICIUS, J. C. : Supplement to the last, 1798.

(28) FERNIE, Dr. : Animal Simples, 1899.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE. IOQ

{29) FITCH, Asa. : Noxious Insects of New York. Albany, 1856.

(30) GUER1N, F.E. : " Sur Porcellio Poeyi." Ann. Set. Soc. Entom. de

Fiance. Vol. VI. (Paris, 1837, m Bull, ent., page 6).
<3i) HELLER, C. : Reise tier Novara ; Crustacea. 1865.

(32) KINAHAN, J.R. : "Analysis of certain genera of terrestrial Isopoda."

Nat. Hist. Rev. Vol . I V, ( 1 8 5 7 ) .

(33) KINAHAN, J.R.: "On the genera Philoscii, /tea and Philougria.

Nat. Hist. Rev. Vol. V. 1858.
^(34) KOCH, C.L. : Deutschlands Crustaceen, Myriapoden and Arachniden.

Regensburg, 1835- 1844.

Koch's descriptions and figures were published in Deutschlands
Crustaceen and appeared also in Panzer's Fauna Insectorum
Germanicce continued by Herrich Schaffer (which see). The
number of the parts of the latter which correspond to those of the
former are placed in square brackets after them in the list here
given. Part 6 (1836) [139] ; Part 22 (1838) [162] ; Part 28 (1839)
[178] ; Part 34 (1840) [180] ; Part 36 (1844) [186]. Some of the
dates quoted will be found to differ from those usually given (in
Budde-Lund (8, p. 7) for instance), and printed on the parts of
the copy in the Zoological Society's Library. Our authority for this
change is Mr. C. D. Sherborne, who bases his dates upon reviews
which he has discovered.
{35) KOCH, C. L. : System der Myriapoden mit den Verzeichnissen und

Berichtigungen zu Deutschlands Crustaceen, Myriapoden und

Arachniden. Regensburg, 1847.

(36) LAMARCK, J. B. : Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres.

Vol. V., 1818.

(37) LATREILLE, P. A. : Histoire Naturelle des Crustaces et des Insectes.

Vol. VII., Paris, 1804.
{58) LEACH, \V. E. : " Tabular view of the external characters of four classes
of animals, which Linne arranged under Insectes." Trans. Linn. Soc.
Land. Vol. XL, 18 15.

(39) LEREBOULLET, A. : " Memoire sur les Crustaces de la famille des

Cloportides qui habitent les environs de Strasbouig." Mem. Soc. Mus.
Hist. Nat. Strasbourg. Vol. IV., 1853, pp. 130, pi. X.

(40) LEUCKART, R. : Verzeichnisz der zur Fauna Helgolands gehorenden

wirbellosen Seethiere. Braunsweig, 1847.
{41) LINNE, C. : Fauna Suecica. First edition, Holmioe, 1746.

(42) LINNE, C. : Fauna Suecica. Second edition, Hoimiae, 1761.

(43) LINNE, C. : Sy sterna Naturae, ed. \2, 1767.

(44) MIERS, E. J. : " Catalogue of New Zealand Crustacea." Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist., Ser. 4., Vol. XVI I., 1876.
{45) MIERS, E. J.: " On a collection of Crustacea (Decapoda and Isopodaj,
chiefly from South America." Proc. Zool. Soc, 1877, p. 653-678.

(46) MILNE-EDWARDS, H. : Histoire naturelle des Crustaces. Vol. III.

Pans, 1840.

(47) NICHOLSON and LYDDEKER : Manual of Paleontology, 1889,

Vol. II., p. 559.

(48) NORMAN, A. M. : " Note on the discovery of Ligidium agile, Persoon

{Zia saundersii Stebb'mg)." Ann. Mag. A 7 at. Hist. Ser. 4, Vol. XL, p. 419.

110 THE BRITISH WOODLICE.

(49) NORMAN, A. M. : ' ; British Land Isopoda." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

{Ser. 7), Vol. III. (1899), pp. 71-78, pi. VI.

(50) NORMAN, A. M. : Continuation of the last. Vol. XI., 1903, pp.

309-3:2.
(50a) NORMAN, A.M. : and BRADY C.S. : " British Land Isopoda."
Second Supplement Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. {Ser. 7), Vol. XIV. (1904),
pp. 449-45°-

(51) PANZER, G. W. F. : Fauna: Insectorum Germanicce initia, oder

Deutschlands Insecten. Parts 1-1 10, Nurnberg, 1793-1813. (See Koch.)

(52) PANZER, G. W. F. : Continuation by Herrich-Schaffer, Parts ur-190,.

1829-1844. (See Koch.)

(53) PARFITT, E. : " The Fauna of Devon." Sessile-Eyed Crustacea. Trans,

Devon Assoc. Sci., Sept. 1873,

(54) PERSOON : No paper upon Woodlice by this author is known, but

he is quoted in Panzer's Deutschlands Insecten (5i)> which see.

(55) PLATEAU, F. : " Crustaces Isopodes Terrestres." Bull.Acad.Roy.de

Belgique, Ser. 2., Vol. XXIX., No. 2 (1870), p. 112.

(56) RISSO, A. : Histoire Naturelle des Crustaces des environs de Nice. Paris,.

1816.

(57) ROBERTSON, D. : " Catalogue of the Amphipoda and Isopoda of the

Firth of Clyde." Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, Vol. II. (1888),.
pp. 9-99.

(58) ROULE, LOUIS: "Etudes sur le Development de Crustaces." Ann,

Sci. Nat., Vol. XVIII. (1895), pp. 1-156, pis. I.-X.

(59) SARS, G. O. : An account of the Crustacea of Norway, Vol. II., 1896-

1899.

(60) SAUSSURE, H. de : " Diagnoses de quelques crustaces nouveaux des

Antilles et du Mexique." Rev. et Mag, de Zool. {Ser. 2), Vol. IX.
(1857), pp. 304-308.

(61) SAVIGNY, J. C, and AUDOUIN, V. : Description de VEgvpte. Vol.

XXII. , 1827.

(62) SAY, T. : " An account of the Crustacea of the United States." /. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Vol. I., pt. II., 1818.

(63) SCHARFF, R. F. : " The Irish Woodlice." Irish Naturalist, Vol. III.,

1894, pp. 4-7 and 25-29, pi. II.

(64) SCHARFF, R. F. : " The Woodlice of Co. Carlow." Irish Naturalist,

1895, P- 319.

(65) SCHNITZLER, H. J. : De Oniscineis agri Bonnensis. (Thesis.),.

Cologne, 1853.

(66) SCHOBL, J. : " Typhloniscus, eine neue blinde Gattung der Crustacea

Isopoda." Sitzungsberichte der math, naiurw. Acad. Wiss. Wien,
Vol. XL. (i860), pp. 279-330.

(67) SCOPOLI, J. A. : Entomologia Camiolica. Vindibonae, 1763.

(68) SCOTT, T. : " The Land and Freshwater Crustacea of the District around

Edinburgh." Proc.R.Phys.S.Edin., Vol. XL (1890-91), p. 75.
68a) SCOTT, T. : British Asssociation Hand Book on the Natural History of
Glasgow. 1901 ; Isopoda, pp. 335 and 336.

(69) SILL, VICTOR : " Beitragzur Kentniss der Crustaceen, Arachuiden and

Myriapoden Siebenburgens." Verhandl. u. Mittheil. des Siebenburg-
hischen Ver fiir Naturwiss. zu Hermannstadt, Vol. XII. (i86i),p. 1-11.

THE BOG-MOSSES OF ESSEX. Ill

(70) STEBBING, T. R. R. : " On a Crustacean of the Genus Zia." Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 4., Vol. XL (1873).

(71) STEBBING, T. R. K. : The Victoria County History of Essex (1903);

Crustacea, pp. 2/-28.
(71a) STEBBING, T. R. R. : The Victoria County History of Buckinghamshire
(1905) ; Crustacea.

(72) VEJDOVSKYF : " Zur Morphologie der Antennen unci Schalendruse

der Crustaceen." Zeit. fViss. Zoo/., Vol. LXIX., p. 378.

(73) VERHOEF, K. W. : " Ueber Palaearktische Isopoden. Zool. Anz.,

Vol. XXIV.

(74) WEBB, WILFRED MARK : " The occurrence in Essex of a species of

Woodlouse (Isopoda) new to Britain {Porcellio ratzeburgii, Brandt)."
Essex Naturalist, Vol. XI. (1899), p. 127.

(75) WEBB, WILFRED MARK: "Notes on Woodlice " (Including

extracts from a paper read before the North London Natural History
Society by James B. Casserley). Science Gossip, Vol. VI., New Series
(1900), pp. 295-296.

(76) WEBER ; MAX. : " Uber einige neue Isopoden der Niederlandischen

Fauna." Tijdschr der Niederland Dierk veren, Vol. V. (1881), pp.
167-196, pi. V.

(77) ZADDACH, E. G. : Synopses crustaceorum Prussicorum pi'odrojnus

Regiomonti, 1 844 .

(78) ZENKER, C. D. : No paper upon woodlice by this author is known, but

he is quoted in Panzer's Deutschlands Insecten (51), which see.

(79) ZITTEL, K. A. von: Textbook of Palccontology. English Translation,.

1900, p. 668.

THE BOG-MOSSES (SPHAGNACE^)) OF ESSEX :

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA

OF THE COUNTY.

Read by FRED. J. CHITTENDEN, County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford.

THE present paper is an attempt to collect the scattered
records of the occurrence of the Bog-Mosses in Essex, to
bring the nomenclature into line with more recently published
lists, to define the limits of their distribution at the present da\>
and to correlate their distribution with the geological formation
of the county.

In the Victoria History of Essex the following remark occurs
respecting the Sphagnaceae or Bog-mosses: " Comparatively few
species of Sphagna are recorded, but the list of species of this
genus will probably be largely increased by further investi-
gation."

IT2 THE BOG-MOSSES OF ESSEX.

The author, no doubt, had in mind the recent changes in the
classification of these organisms, which share with other large
and widely spread genera, such as Rubies, Rosa, and Hieracium
among land plants, and Potamogeton, the Batrachian Ranunculi and
the Harpidioid section of Hypnum among aquatics, that difficulty
of classification which arises from the presence of only very
slight differences and very great likenesses between the forms.
This characteristic aggravates the question as to what is a
species and causes great differences of opinion among workers
in these groups.

In the following list the system of Warnstorf has been
followed. 1 This system has been adopted by most Continental
and American writers, and in some of the more recent local
lists of Sphagna in this country. 2 According to Warnstorf's
classification 41 species of Sphagna occur in this country, while
only 12 are recognised in the most recent book on British
mosses. 3 This classification is based largely upon the position
ot the chlorophyllose cells in the branch leaves and the
distribution of the pores in the hyaline cells, and is therefore
to some extent ah artificial one, but the forms so distinguished
■do, as a rule, according to my experience, correspond with what
appears to be a natural grouping of the plants themselves. (But
see note under Sphagna subsecunda below.)

Several lists have been published. I have been able to find
the following : —

(1) 1845. Greenwood, A. " Mosses found near Chelmsford."

Phytologist, Vol. ii.

(2) 1872. Parsons, Dr. A. F. " Mosses of London District. "

Science Gossip, Vol. viii., p. 64.

(3) 1884. English, J. MS. list of Mosses of Epping Forest.

(4) 1890. Buxton, E. N. " Mosses." Epping Forest, Ed. III.,

PP- l S5i 136.

(5) 1891. Makquand, E. D. ''List of Mosses in Mr. E.G. Varenne's

Herbarium." Essex Naturalist, Vol. vi., pp. 33.

(6) 1900. Horrell, E. C. " European Sphagnaceas." Journal of

Botany, 1900.

(7) 1901 ? Dixon, H. N., MS. list of N. Essex mosses.

(8) 1903. Shenstone, J. C, Victoria History of Essex. Article

" Botany."

1 Horrell, E. C, " European Sphagnaceas," Journ. of Bot., 1900.

2 e.g., Ingham, W., " Sphagna of Yorkshire and Durham." Journ. 0/ Bot., 1901., p. 145.

3 Dixon, H. N. Student's Handbook of British Mosses. Ed. II. (1904).

THE BOG-MOSSES OF ESSEX. 113

In addition to these lists there are specimens of bog-mosses
collected in Essex, in the following Herbaria : —

(9) British Museum of Natural History.
(10) Essex Field Club Herbarium.

(Including the collections of Messrs. English and Varenne.)
All of these sources of information have been consulted in
drawing up the list, and the records duly incorporated.

The Sphagnaceae so far as their vegetative structure is
concerned, form a highly specialized group, and are particularly
well adapted for life in situations where there is an abundant
and constant supply of water contained in shallow basins and
flowing but slowly, if at all. The majority of the species appear
to thrive best in the presence of abundant light. These some-
what peculiar conditions are realised in few places in our count)',
and only, it would seem, where a porous stratum forming the
top of a hill meets a non-porous stratum as one goes down the
slope. Except where drainage, either for agricultural purposes
or for building, has altered the conditions, they are fulfilled
wherever the Bagshot Sands overlie the Boulder Clay or the
London Clay, and in some places where Glacial Gravel forms
the crown of the hill, the lower portion of which is of Boulder
Clay or London Clay.

I have collected Sphagna in the following localities where
London Clay underlies Bagshot Sands — Warley, Norton Heath,
High Beach, Galleywood Common, Mill Green, and Hainhault
Forest. In all the other localities where I have found these
plants growing, the drift maps show Glacial Gravel (Post-glacial
at the Rising Sun, Walthamstow), except at the locality in
Thomas' Quarters, Epping Forest, and there the map must be
at fault. I have not found any Sphagna definitely associated
with the Boulder Clay that forms so large a part of the surface
of the County — possibly owing to the presence of a fairly large
proportion of lime in that formation.

[Note. — In the following list the names in brackets refer to the collector of
the specimen quoted. I have examined those from localities followed
by the sign ! and have collected a specimen in the localities followed
by! !]

I 14 THE BOG-MOSSES OF ESSEX.

SPHAGNA ACUTIFOLIA.
Sphagnum acutifolium Warnst.

[Most, if not all, the old records of this species belong
to the next.] I have not seen the following : N. Essex
(Dixon), near Chelmsford^Greenwood).
vav. puvpuvcum, Wils.

Near Chelmsford (Greenwood).

S. subnitens Russ. and Warnst.

" Bog near the Bald-faced Stag " (Forster) ! ; Warley
Common (young undeveloped form) ! !

vav. purpiwascens Schlieph.

Epping Forest (English) ! ; Tiptree Heath (Varenne) ! ;
Linguard Common ! !

vav. versicolor Warnst.

Thomas' Quarters, Epping Forest ! ! ; Galleywood
Common (Varenne) ! ! ; Linguard Common ! ! ; Wood-
ham Walter Common and Bergholt Heath (Varenne) !

vav. vivescens Warnst.

Thomas' Quarters, Epping Forest ! !

SPHAGNA SQUARROSA.
S. squarrosum Pers.

" Forest near Snaresbrook " (Forster) ! ; Galleywood

Common (Greenwood)
vav subsquavvosum Russ.

Theydon and High Beach (English) ; Galleywood

Common ! ! ; Pod's Wood (Varenne)
vav. imbricatum Schimp.

Near " Rising Sun," Walthamstow

(Parsons) ! ! ; Galleywood Common

SPHAGNA CUSPIDATA.
S. cuspidatum Ehrh.

N. Essex (Dixon). [In the absence of a specimen it is
impossible to tell to which .of the segregates this
belongs.]

S. recurvum var. mucvonatum Warnst.

Between Theydon and Wake Arms ! ! ; Epping Forest
(English) ! ; Woodham Mortimer Common (Varenne) !

THE BOG-MOSSES OF ESSEX. II5

S. molluscum forma vobusta Warnst.

Between Theydon and Wake Arms ! ! ; Warley
Common ! !

SPHAGNA RIGIDA.
«S. compactum D.C.

N. Essex (Dixon).
vav. imbvicatum Warnst.

High Beach (Varenne) ! ; Thomas' Quarters, Epping

Forest ! ! ; Tiptree Heath (Varenne) ! !
vav. subsquarvosum Warnst.

Tiptree Heath ! !

SPHAGNA SUBSECUNDA.

[The classification of the species comprising this group rests
primarily upon the distribution of the pores on the inner and
outer surfaces of the branch leaves, and since almost all possible
variations occur, and plants with very varying appearance have
a similar distribution of pores, the classification becomes
■exceedingly difficult. I have regarded all the forms having a
conspicuously greater number of pores on the outer surface of
the leaf and the istem leaves of medium size as belonging to
S. inundatum — the type of the group I have failed to find in the
county. It is possible that all the forms may have to be
regarded as varieties of one and the same species, so closely do
they run to one another and so little does the habit seem to be
correlated with the anatomical characters in many of them.]

S. inundatum Warnst.

" On the forest by the road from Debden Green to the
camp, Ambres' Banks " (Forster) ! ; Thomas Quarters,
Epping Forest ! ! ; Wake Valley ! ! ; Strawberry Hill,
Epping Forest ! ! ; nr. Mt. Pleasant, Epping Forest ! ! ;
Great Monk Wood ! ! ; nr. Rising Sun, Walthamstow ! !
and other parts of Epping Forest near High Beach;
N. Weald, Epping Lower Forest!!; Hainhault
Forest ! ! ; Norton Heath ! ! ; Mill Green Common ! ! ;
Warley Common (Varenne) ! ! ; Linguard Common ! ! ;
Tiptree Heath (Varenne) ! ! ; Little Baddow
Common ! ! ; nr. Chelmsford (Greenwood) ; Galleywood
■Common (Varenne) ! !

H6 THE BOG-MOSSES OF ESSEX.

S. rufescens Warnst.

Between Theydon and Wake Arms ! !
S. crassicladum Warnst.

Cuckoo Pits, Chingford ! ! ; Galley wood Common ! I

S. obesum Warnst.

High Beach (Varenne) ! !

SPHAGNA CYMBIFOLIA.

S. cymbifolium, Warnst.

Epping (Sidebottam 1843) ! ; Norton Heath (Side-
bottam) ! ; nr. Walthamstow (Forster) ! ; (sub-nom. var.
compactum) near Chelmsford (Greenwood).

var. fiavo-glaucescens, Russ.
Theydon (Horrell).

vav. fuscc-glaucescens Russ.
Tiptree Heath ! !

var. glaucescens Warnst.

Theydon (Horrell); Thomas' Quarters, Epping
Forest ! ! ; between Theydon and W T ake Arms (Eng-
lish) ! ! ; Loughton ! ! ; Warley Common (Varenne) ! ! ;
West Bergholt Heath (Varenne) ! ; Pod's Wood
(Varenne) ! ; Mill Green Common ! !

var. rubescens Warnst.

Between Theydon and Wake Arms ! ! ; Linguard
Common ! ! ; Galleywood Common ! ! ; Little Baddow
Common ! !
5. [papillosum, Lindb.

This species has been recorded in error (Horrell, Journ.

Bot., 1900) ; the specimen proves to belong to 5.

cymbifolium.]

ii7

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE:
A REPORT.

BY MILLER CHRISTY.

[At the request of the Council of the Essex Field Club and myself, the
Editor of this journal has been good enough to place at my disposal a few pages
in order to publish a report of a matter in which every member of the Club must
feel a very special interest, though the Club itself is not officially connected there-
with. For this courtesy, I tender thanks on behalf of myself and others concerned.]

THE Foundation of the Essex Field Club, in 1880, was due
to the initiative of Mr. William Cole, of Buckhurst Hill,
who has acted ever since as its Honorary Secretary. To his
energy is due, in the main, the leading position the Club now holds
among local scientific societies and the establishment of its
two Museums (the Epping Forest Museum, at Chingford, and the
Essex Museum of Natural History, at Stratford). He took also
a prominent part in the Freeing of Epping Forest.

That a man should continue to act for over a quarter-of-a-
century as Honorary Secretary of a society founded by himself
is very unusual ; and, for some years past, it has seemed to me
that the time was approaching when some movement to
recognize formally and publicly Mr. Cole's long-continued and
valuable scientific, educational, and other public work (carried
on by him at considerable pecuniary sacrifice) would be not only
timely but positively called for.

When, therefore, I found myself President of the Club in the
twenty-sixth year of its existence, an attempt to initiate some such
movement seemed to be a duty laid upon me. On consulting
with several Past Presidents, I found that one and all shared my
view as to the opportuneness of such a movement. Thus
encouraged, I approached others, with a view to forming a
Committee to take action ; for it was felt generally that the
object aimed at could be attained better by a separate organiza-
tion than by the Council of the Field Club. Ultimately, an
influential Committee of thirty-two persons was formed as
follows : —

Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S., Pres.C.S., &c. {Chair/nan).
David Howard, D.L., F.I.C., F.C.S., &c. {Hon. Treasurer).
Miller Christy, F.L.S. {Hon. Secretary).
Geo. Avenell I. Chalklev Gould

John Avery, F.S.S. J. E. Harting, F.Z.S., &c.

Professor G. S. Boulger, F.L.S. , Thomas Vincent Holmes, F.G.S.,

F.G.S. F.A.I.

uS

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

A. : E. Briscoe, B.Sc, &c, Late

Principal of the Municipal

Technical Institute, West Ham
Rev. R. Ashington Bullen,

Chairman of Council of the

Selborne Society
E. North Buxton, D.L., &c,

Verderer of Epi>ing Forest
Sir T. Fowell Buxton, Bart.,D.L.,

/ r erderer of Epping Forest
T. F. V. Buxton. High Sheriff

of Essex, J. P., &c.
J, Byford, jun , Mayor of

West Ham
Frederic Chancellor, T-P-
Edward A. Fitch, J.P., C.A.,

F.L.S., F.E.S.
Peter Geilatly, D.L., Verderer of

Epping Forest. &°c.

The Vicomte Horncastle, Chairman
Epting Forest Committee of the
Cor potation of London

Andrew Johnston, J. P., Chairman
Essex County Council

Henry Laver, J.P., F.S.A.

E. T. Newton, F.K.S., F.G.S., &c.

E. BTPoulton, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c.

E. A. Read, Verderer of Epping Forest
Thomas W. Reader. F.G.S.

F. W. Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.
J. C. Shenstone. F.L.S.
John Spiller, F.C.S., F.I.C.
The Countess of Warwick

Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S.,Hon. Sec.

Selborne Soc.
William Whitaker, B.A.,

F.R.S., F.G.S.
E. J. Wythes, J. P., &c.

This Committee included, it will be seen, all the eight Past-
Presidents of the Club, with other gentlemen, some of whom are
members of the Club, whilst others are not.

During October last, I sent out, in the name of this Com-
mittee, to all members of the Club and to many others likely to
appreciate Mr. Cole's work, an appeal asking for subscriptions
(not exceeding one guinea) to " The William Cole Recognition
Fund," and stating that the Committee (having taken steps to
ascertain what would be acceptable to Mr. Cole) proposed —

(i) To present to him, as a slight testimony of appreciation
of his work, a purse of at least One Hundred Guineas ;

(2) To entertain him, together with his Brothers and Sisters
(all of whom have assisted him very greatly in his work), as
Guests at a Complimentary Dinner, at which the purse would be
presented ; and, further,

(3) To present also to the Guests at the Dinner a formal
inscribed Address of Thanks.

The response to this appeal was most gratifying. No fewer
than one hundred and sixty-nine ladies and gentlemen (chiefly,
of course, members of the Essex Field Club) sent subscriptions
varying in amount from 2s. 6d. to the maximum of £1 is. 1 The
Committee found itself, therefore, in possession of a sum
sufficient to enable it to hold the proposed dinner, to present a
Purse of one hundred and ten guineas, to pay for the engrossing

1 Their names will be found appended to the formal Address, which is printed
hsreafter.

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE. II9

of the formal Address of Thanks, and to meet the various
incidental expenses.

The Dinner was held at the Royal Forest Hotel, Chingford,
Essex, on the gth December 1905, and was an unqualified
success. It was attended by nearly one hundred subscribers
and their friends (each subscriber having the right to
bring a guest), including the special Guests of the Evening —
Messrs. William Cole, F.L.S., B. G. Cole, and H.
A. Cole, Miss Cole, and Miss Jane Cole. The subscribers
and guests were formally received on their arrival by
Prof, and Mrs. Meldola, Mrs. Howard, and Mr. Miller Christy.

The chair at the dinner w T as occupied by Prof. R. Meldola,
F.R.S. (first President of the Essex Field Club), and among those
present were Mr. T. F. V. Buxton, J. P. (High Sheriff of Essex),
Mr. David Howard, J. P., D.L , F.I.C, F.C.S., Mr. Miller
Christy, F.L.S. (President of the Essex Field Club), Professor
G. S. Boulger, F.L.S., F.G.S., Mr. P. Gellatly, D.L., J. P.
(Verderer of Epping Forest), Mr. J. E. Harting, F.Z.S., Mr. T.
Vincent Holmes, F.G.S., Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S. , F.G.S.,
Mr. W, Mark Webb, F.L.S. (Hon. Sec. of the Selborne Society),
Mr. John Spiller, F.C.S., Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., Mr.
Horace B. Woodward, F.R.S., Dr. J. H. B. Burrage, M.A.
(H.M. Inspector of Secondary Schools and Technical Institutes),
Miss Mary H. Cole, Mr. Bryan Corcoran, Mr. John Avery. Mr.
F. W. Elliott, Mr. and Mrs. J. A. Finzi, Miss K. M. Hall,
F.L.S., the Rev. W. C. Howell, M.A., Mr. W. Ping, F.C.S.,
Mr. G. E. Pritchett, F.S.A., Mr. Frank W. Reader, Mr. Thomas
W. Reader, F.G.S., Mr. J. R. Roberts, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas
Royle, Miss Royle, Mr. Matthew Rose, Mr. J. C. Shenstone,
Mr. G. E. Vaughan, Mr. Joseph Wilson, and Mr. J. M. Wood.
Several others who were expected telegraphed at the last moment
expressing regret at their inability to be present. These
included Mr. A. E. Briscoe, INI r. J. Byford, jun. (late Mayor
of West Ham), Mr. H. I. Coburn (Hon. Solicitor to the Club),
and Mr. I. Chalkley Gould.

When the time arrived for speeches,

The Chairman said : Ladies and Gentlemen, we have met together on this
occasion in circumstances of peculiar interest. It is a notable thing in the
history of any Society to be enabled to celebrate its half-jubilee. The Essex
Field Club has completed twenty-five years of active work, but the interest of
this gathering centres chieflv in the fact that what the Club has been

120 PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

enabled to do is practically the outcome of the single-minded devotion of our
chief guest this evening, Mr. William Cole, who has been its active executive
officer during the whole period of its existence (Applause). We have met,
therefore, to do honour to our Founder, our Hon. Secretary, our Editor, and the
Curator of our Museums. In all these capacities, he has served us right loyally
for a quarter-of-a- century — (applause) — devoting the best part of his life and
energy to this work.

I might speak of Mr. Cole in a collective capacity, like the editorial " we,''
signifying many ; for we all know how the other members of the family have
worked with him shoulder to shoulder (Applause).

In case there should be some misapprehension — and I have heard one or two
remarks which lead me to believe that there may be some — I wish it to be
distinctly understood that this is not a farewell gathering (Applause). It is
quite the reverse : it is a renewal of the lease of Mr. Cole's activity. We are
glad to know that he is not going to retire upon his laurels, and I am sure I
shall be expressing the innermost wishes of all of you when I wish continued
health and activity to Mr. William Cole and the members of his family, to continue
the good work which he inaugurated more than twenty-five years ago and
lias carried on so actively ever since.

If there is one thing that stands out clearly in the history of the Essex Field
Club, it is the extraordinary vitality and longevity of the officials connected with
it. There is not a single blank in our list of Past-Presidents, and I think there is
only one gap in the list of officers who have ever given their services to the
Society during the whole period of its existence .

It is undesirable that I, who have been put into this most honourable and,
I may say, particularly gratifying position, should detain you long with any
personal reminiscences. At the same time, it is difficult for me to travel back in
the history of my long friendship with the Cole family without saying that I first
met our Secretary, some thirty-five years ago, in the glades of Epping Forest
(Applause). From the time that this Club was started down to the present
moment, it has been my privilege and my pleasure to promote the objects of the
Society in every way within my power (Applause). I have seen the work
from the commencement, and I think I have a unique knowledge of the amount
of thought and labour which Mr. Cole and his brothers and sisters have put into
the affairs of this Society. He started the Club with lofty ideals, and those-
ideals have been more or less realized. That is something to be proud of. The
position which this Club has gained throughout the country is so high that he
may well feel pride in contemplating the outcome of his work.

We are proud to see among us to-night many of the oldest members of our
Society. We are prouder still to see many guests, whose presence here shows that
there is also an outer public which is appreciative of the work the Essex Field
Club has been able to carry on, through its Founder and Secretary, during this
long period of time (Applause). I should like, with your permission, to read
some of the letters which have been sent to myself and to Mr. Miller Christy, in
connection with this gathering, by yet other well-wishers who are unable to be
present with us.

The Chairman then read the letters following : —

52, NEVKRN SQUARE, KENSINGTON', S.W.

December yd, IQ05.
My dear Meldola,
I was delighted to hear of this proposed official recognition of the great debt

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE. 121

we owe to Mr. Cole for the inception of the Club, and for his untiring labours
during the past twenty-five years as our Honorary Secretary and Editor of our
Journal. All this will receive suitable expression, I feel sure, at the gathering
on Saturday next.

The labours of our Honorary Secretary and his colleagues have exerted an
influence far beyond the limits of the Essex Field Club itself, which is now
justly regarded as the normal Field Club, to which other kindred Societies look
for guidance in all matters connected with their organization and administration.
This fact is one which should not be lost sight of in expressing our gratitude to
the Guest of the Evening.

I am, my dear Meldola, sincerelv yours,

' Horace T. BROWN.

THE VICARAGE, PYRFORD, WOKING.

November I$tk, I905.
Dear Sir.

I am very sorry that other engagements for December 9th, and my
distance from Chingford, with a bad service of trains, precludes the possibility of
my being present on that day at the William Cole Recognition Fund dinner.

I am glad that your labours have been so successful, and trust that you will
have a happy and pleasant gathering.

Yours sincerelv,

R.'Ashington BULLEN.

KNIGHTON, BUCKHURST HILL,

Nov. 30, 1905.
Dear Air. Christy,

I rind it will not be possible for me to attend the dinner at which the
presentation to Mr. Cole is to be made. I shall have friends staying here at
the time. I hope the occasion will be worthy of the object, with which I have
the greatest sympathy. Yours verv trulv,

E. N. BUXTON.

EDEN HOLME, ATHFRTON ROAD, FOREST GATE, E.

December 8th, 1905.
Dear Mr. Christy,

I regiet verv much indeed that a severe cold and sore throat will
prevent me attending the dinner to-morrow at the Royal Forest Hotel,
Chingfoid, in honour of Mr. William Cole, whose great and invaluable services
are so much appreciated by the members of the Corporation of West Ham and
the great mass of people residing in that distiict.

The Museum next to the Technical Institute will always remain a monument
to his name, and gratitude will be expiessed lor years to come to the gentleman
whose efforts brought such auseful and inteiesting exhibition in their midst.

I sincerelv hope the function will be a great success, and again regretting my
inability to be present,

Believe me, yours faith full v,

John BYFORD, jun.

^Ex-Mayor of West Ham).

BELLEFIELD, CHELMSFORD,

.\'r>7'. 28, I9O5.

My dear Mr. Christy

I should much like to have attended the dinner in honour

of Mr. Wm. Cole, who has done so much for the Essex Field Club and has well
earned any honour that may be offered him ; but, for an old man, it is such a long
journey from Chingford to 'Chelmsford after dinner that I think it more prudent
to ask to be excused

I remain, vours faithfully,

Eked. CHANCELLOR.

122 PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

NASH MILLS, HEMF.L HEMPSTEAD, HERTS,

Nov. 13, 1905.
Dear Prof. Meldola,

I much regret that it will not be possible for me to be present at the
complimentary dinnei to be given to Mr. William Cole on Dec. 9th.

Will vou kindly express to him and to those who are assembled to do him
honour my high appreciation of his energetic wzork in the promotion of natural
knowledge, oiler him my congratulations on the success of his endeavours
during the past twenty-five years, and tell him how heartily I join in all the good
wishes that will be expressed for his being long spared to continue his useful
labours.

Believe me, yours sincerelv,

John' EVANS.

CLAREMONT HOUSE, WIMBLEDON COMMON,

November 25, 1905.
My dear Meldola,

I shall not be able to be present at the dinner to Mr. Cole, but I should
like to express rav sense of the great value of his services to the Essex Field
Club.

We are all proud of the work that has been accomplished, directly and
indirectly, through its activity. One knows how much an association like
ours depends for its effectiveness on the " Permanent Head of the Department.
I am sure I shall not be alone in giving expression to the feeling that we owe a
great — a very great — deal of our healthy activity to the motive power of the Hon.
Secretary,

Yours sincerelv,

J. B. FARMER.

BRICK HOUSE, MALDON,

1st December, 1905.
Dear Mr. Christ v.

I fear I shall be unable to attend the complimentary dinner to Mr.

William Cole on the qth inst

Should I be absent, I trust the Chairman will be able to express my very
best wishes for the welfare of the Cole family in remembrance of many happy
days spent together in the long ago with them and my colleagues of the Essex
Field Club. Long may they and it continue to flourish.

Yours very sincerelv,

Edward A. FITCH.

3, ENDSLEIGH STREET, TAVISTOCK SQUARE, W.C.

Nov. 28, 1905.
Dear Mr. Christy,

. . I find that it will be quite impossible for me to attend, much-
as I should have wished it, so as to have been able to congratulate Mr. Cole and
his family personally for the excellent work they have done.

Yours very truly,

F. Carr'uthers GOULD.

WOODFORD GREEN,

Nov. 1 2th, 1905.
Dear Sir,

We go to Hertfordshire on a visit on the 9th prox., so that I shall be
unable to be at the dinner, with the object of which, as you know, I entirely
sympathise, and am very glad that your efforts have been so successful.

Yours very trulv,

Andw. JOHNSTON".

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE. 12}

BRITISH MUSKUM (NATURAL HISTORY), CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, S.W.,

Nov. 6th.
Mv clear Meldola,

I am sorry to be unable to attend the dinner at Chingford on Dec. 9th,.
and the presentation to Mr. William ( 'ok-. I am yet very far from having
recovered from my severe illness, which laid me up all the summer.

I can, however, join in the expression of appreciation of .Mr. Cole's services to
the Essex Field Club, and do so most cordially. The (dub has done and is
doing most valuable service in cultivating the best kind of field work. There is
still plenty to be done, new things to be found ami new facts discovered about
old and well-known plants and animals. A Club such as ours brings a constant
supply of voting naturalists into contact with the problems which have occupied
the older generations, and a generous spirit of comradeship and enthusiasm in
the study of Nature is the result of such organization.

With best wishes, I am sincerelv yours

E. Kay LANKESTER.

43, HRAD STREET, COLCHESTKR,

Nov. 2q, I905.
Dear Mr. Christy,

I am sorry I shall be unable to be present on the occasion of the
presentation to the Hon. Sec. of the Essex Field Club.

I should have been glad to have taken part in honouring our friend, who has
done so much in furthering a love for natural history. It will be long, I suppose,
before there will be another opportunity, in any part of the Kingdom, for
presenting to any hon. secretary of a Society a testimonial foi such an almost life-
long persistent 'effort to interest all classes as has been exhibited by our friend,
Mr. Cole.

In thanking him, we must not lose sight of the assistance we have received,
from other members of his family. I am glad the Society acknowledges this fact,
and I trust they may all long live to enjoy the esteem they have so well merited.

I am, yours very truly,

Henry LAVER.

LEYTONSTONE,

Nov. 11, 1905.
Dear Mr. Christy,

I shall be 'in the West ofFngland at the time of your gathering and
shall, therefore, be unable to be present.

. . . The address seems to me to be excellent, and truly expresses the
cordial recognition which all the contributors must entertain of the admirable
work Mr. Cole and his relatives have done in the cause of Essex Natural
History, Believe me, yours very truly,

Arthur LISTER.

LOUGHTON HALL, LOUGHTON, ESSEX,

Nov. 28, 1905.
Dear Mr. Christy, . . .

Pray express my regret that I am unable to attend the dinner on the
9th at Chingford.

I wish every success to the gathering, and may Mr. Cole long continue his
most useful labours. Very truly yours,

(Rev.) J. Whitaker MAITLAND.

WYKEHAM HOUSE, OXFORD.

November ~, 1905.
My dear Meldola,

I am extremely sorry that the vast accumulation of work and many
things during my recent long journey with the British Association prevents me
from being present on an occasion which commands my warmest sympathy.

124 PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

I heartily congratulate William Cole for all he has done, and the Essex
Field Club in the possession of so enthusiastic and successful a helper. We want
many more natural history Societies in England with the high standard of the
Essex Field Club, but in order to get them we need many more men like
William Cole. However, we must hope for the best, and rest content with the
knowledge that such well organized and admirable effort is itself productive of
good work in others, and sooner or later is certain to lead to the growth of other
organizing centres of beneficent knowledge.

Hoping that you will have a most successful evening,

I am, yours sincerely,

E. B. POULTON.

TERLTNG PLACE, WTTHAM, ESSEX,

Nov. ~t/i, 1905.
Dear Prof. Meldola,

I am afraid it is not possible for me to come to the dinner at Chingford
on Dec. 9, but I am glad that an opportunity has been found for recognising the
services of Mr. Cole as Hon. Sec. to the Club over so many years. Though I
have myself been able to take but little part, I have always understood that
the activities of the Club, as directed by him, have been of great advantage to
■the County.

Yours very truly,

RAYLEIGH.

18, st. george's road, kilburn, n.w.,

Dec. 8 th, 1905.

My dear Professor,

Could I have had the advantage of being at Chingford, it would have been
an unfeigned pleasure to me to have added my feeble tribute of esteem to the
volume of appreciation which will, I am sure, go forth in recognition of the long
and disinterested services rendered to our Club by Mr. W. Cole, and by his
brothers and sisters.

I feel, indeed, that Mr. W. Cole has been the guiding spirit of the Club from
its original inception ; I know that he remains its organizing head to-day ;
and I tiust that he may be spared to hold this position for many a day to come.
I join, therefore, with you in offering to him my warm congratulation on his
work in the Past and the Present, while tendering to him my sincere wishes for
its continuance in the Future.

I am. Dear Professor Meldola, yours faithfully,

F. W. RLTDLER.

Che i.ms for i),

Nov. 29, IQ05.
Dear Mr. Christy,

I had been hoping to be able to attend the dinner given to Mr. Cole on
the 9th prox., but I am so deeply engaged that I fear I shall be unable
to do so.

I have known Mr. Cole ever since I came into Essex, and have so often
been indebted to him for valuable assistance that I feel he richly deserves the
token of appreciation to be presented to him at the dinner. 1 sinceiely hope
that he and his family may long be spared to continue their good works in the
interest of the Field Club and the County of Essex.

Yours faithfully,

John C. THRESH.

II, PATERNOSTER BUILDINGS, LONDON, E.C.

■jth Dec, 1905.
Dear Mr. Christy,

I very much regret to find that it will be quite impossible for me to be
present at the complimentary dinner to my old friend, William Cole.

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE. I25.

As I am one of the oldest members cf the Club and also a member of the
first Council, it would have been peculiarly pleasant to have been present and
joined in the congratulations and thanks to William Cole for his magnificent and
unselfish work for our count).

Yours very truly,

T. Fisher UN WIN.

BROADSTONE, WIMHORNE,

Nov. qth, 1905.
My dear Meldola,

It seems only the other day that you started the " Essex" — or, rather,
I think the Epping Forest — Field Club, and now you are celebrating its Jubilee
of 25 years.

I heartily congratulate you and Mr. Cole on the great success of your work.
I look back upon my few rambles with the Club in its early days with great
pleasure, while the " fungus forays " were as delightful as they were instructive.
I only regret that distance and other occupations have for so many years debarred
me from the pleasure of attending your meetings and excursions. x

With my very best wishes for the success of the Club and for the prolongation
of its life into the remotest conceivable futurity,

Believe me, yours very sincerely,

Alfred R. WALLACE.

II, CRANMER ROAD, CAMBRIDGE.

December 6th, 1905.
My dear Meldola,

I am extremely sorry to be unable to be present at the celebration
dinner to Mr. Cole, but, as President of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, I
must be in the chair at their annual dinner.

Had I been with you, I should have hoped to say much better than I can
write how heartily I congratulate Mr. Cole on his consummation of a great work;
for it is a great work to have founded, aud successfully piloted through all these
years, a club such as yours.

Field Clubs with real working power such as yours are capable ot doing an
immense amount of good.

Even your literary side — of course, I mean the periodical publication —
expresses a vigour and appreciation of the local scientific topics of interest and
importance, which arouses enthusiasm in anyone with a true love of Natural
History.

You are, in the truest sense of the words, a " Field Club," and I hope you
will continue to be so, prying into local Natural History, and making yourselves
felt as a local power.

As for myself, I am very proud to be enrolled in honour on your list.
Believe me, yours sincerely,

H. Marshall WARD.

WARWICK HOUSE, ST. JAMES'S, S.W.,

Nov. 2$th, IQ05.
Dear Professor Meldola,

I regret very much that my engagements do not admit of my being
with you on Dec. 9th, and I, therefore, write a few lines for you to communicate
to the Meeting.

In the first place let me congratulate you all on the completion of 25 years of
active work in our good County of Essex. You know lull well how warmly I

1 In his recently-published Autobiography (vol. ii., p. 106) Mr. Wallace says :— "Shortly
before I left England (1886) I gave the lecture on " Darwinism" to the Essex Field Club, in
order to see how my diagrams of variation struck an intelligent audience, and was fairly
satisfied with the result."

126 PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

sympathise with all work that helps to elevate the general level of public scientific
interest, and the Kssex Field Club has certainly deserved well of the County for
the efficient way in which it has carried out its programme. That the success of
the Club is largely due to the single-minded devotion to. its interests by the
Hon. Secretary, Mr. William Cole, is to De declared publicly on the occasion of
the presentation on the 9th.

1 will ask you. therefore, at that ceremony to make known to him and to the
Members assembled how much I appreciate his past services, and to let him
know that he has my good wishes for his future activity, and for the future
prosperity of the Club.

Yours sincerely,

Frances Evelyn WARWICK.

129, BEAUFORT STREET, CHELSEA, S.W.

Dear Mr. Miller Christy,

I had fully intended to come and to bring Mrs. Woodward, but
advancing years and much work still to be done prevent.

My thoughts will be with you at your gathering, and I most cordially add my
earnest good wishes for my friend William Cole, his brothers and sisters, and for
the success of the Essex Field Club.

. . . . With much regret at not being able to be present and renewed
good wishes for the success of your gathering,

Believe me, al.vavs, vours very sincerely,

Henry WOODWARD.

KAYHOUGH, KEW,

Nove tuber 11, 1 905.
Dear Mr. Miller Christy,

I much regret being unable to attend the dinner on the 9th December,
having only just recovered from a bad cold.

. . The address well expresses the sentiments we all must have
towards Mr. Cole. His long and disinterested labours, so well seconded by
members of his family in promoting the cause of Natural Science, deserve, as the
address says, "formal and public recognition."

Yours sincerely,

Chas. A. WRIGHT.

The Chairman (continuing) said : Before I sit down, I think it is my duty to
perform one pleasant task, and that is to express my own appreciation of the
skilful organizing powers which the President ot the Club, Mr. Miller Christy,
has displayed in arranging this little function (Applause). It is really to Mr.
Christy, more than anybody else, that you are indebted for the success which has
attended this movement. As he has acted as hon. secretary of this fund, I
think the next thing to be done is to ask him to say a few words.

Mr. Miller Christy : Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, Our Chairman
has spoken of this function as celebrating an epoch in the history of the Essex
Field Club, but I may, perhaps, point out that, although the Essex Field Club is
very closely connected with what we are met here to do, the organization which
has got up this movement is not officially connected with the Club.

I have had in my mind for some time the idea that something ought to be done
to call attention to and to recognize the very remarkable work of our founder and
hon. secretary ; and, when 1 found myself President of the Club in the twenty-
sixth year of its existence, I felt there was nothing for me to do but to endeavour
to set this movement on foot. This is the history of its origin.

You w r ould say it was fiction on my part were I to tell you that the getting up
of this Fund had not involved a considerable amount of labour. I admit that it

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE. I 27

has. I feel, indeed, in some ways, like a man who has undergone what is
vulgularly called "three months' hard"; but whereas, in ordinary circum-
stances, the man who undergoes that experience lias nothing but vain regrets, I
have nothing but pleasant recollections. Personally, 1 have my reward in the
very ready response this movement lias met with. It seems to have received
al-nost universal approval. Everyone I have approached in the matter has
expressed good wishes and has sent a subscription. I think I have never been
associated with any movement that went with such a " bang," as you may say, from
start to finish. In connection with these matters, it is, as you know, a very
•common experience to have to whip round very hard, but nothing of the kind has
been necessary in this case. How ready the response has been is shown by the
fact that no less than 169 ladies and gentlemen have sent subscriptions —
.(applause) — and that is, I think, a very remarkable total. Further, I should like
to express to our Chairman of this evening and also to our honorary treasurer,
Mr. David Howard, my personal thanks for the very great assistance they have
rendered in this matter.

So much as to the origin and progress of this movement. Turning to other
matters, I should like to say that I think one of the most satisfactory features
we can congratulate ourselves upon in connection with this movement is the
fact that it is not a farewell meeting, as so many such gatherings are. Our hon.
secretary is not retiring from his labours, and we all hope that he will not
retire for a long time.

I have been associated with Mr. Cole during the whole course of the Field
Club's existence, and I know well the labour and the skill and forethought he
has given to its work. In expressing my own appreciation of his work and that
of his brothers and sisters, I should like to emphasize one remark which was
contained in the letter from Professor Ray Lankester which our Chairman read
to you. He said, I think, something to the effect that the whole result of what
Mr. Cole has done is not yet apparent. It is not so much a matter of what we can see
has been accomplished in the past as of what will be accomplished in the future by
what he has done. That work, by attracting young men to study natural science,
and by training them, will, I believe, continue to bear valuable fruit long after we
have celebiated this function. In this we have, I think, the chief value of Mr.
Cole's work.

Mr. T. F. V. Buxton, j.p., High Sheriff of Essex, said: Professor
Meldola, ladies and gentlemen, I feel it an honour to be asked to say a few
words in suppoit of what has already been said about Mr. Cole and his work.

It seems to me that there is something peculiarly appropriate in our meeting
where we do this evening. This paper that we have before us reminds us that we
may look back not only over the twenty-five years of the Club's existence, but
just a little further still to a great work which Mr. Cole had a hand in carrying
out : I mean the rescue of Epping Forest (Applause). To-night we meet
within the borders of that forest, which is now so great a boon to the public.

I am reminded that the Field Club is not connected with the
forest alone or with this neighbourhood alone, but that it is an Essex
Field Club ; and I feel that the County as a whole — not only those who li\e in
this part of the county —are indebted to Mr. Cole and his brothers and sisters for
the work that they have done in the interests of science and natural history, I
think that a specially-valuable branch of that work has to do with the education
of children. A good deal has been done and a good deal more is likely to be

128 PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

done in the way of Nature Study among children, a teaching which will make them
more observant and enable them to enjoy the charms of country life. To-night,
we meet within a stone's throw of one of those two museums, established by the
Essex Field Club, in which children and others are being educated. I am glad
to think that in these two museums we have a lasting and tangible memorial
which will be a reminder to our children and grandchildren of the work which
Mr. Cole and his family have done. I hope that that work will be more
recognized by the county as a whole that it has been. It is much to be desired
that the number of members of the Club should be increased ; and I cannot but
think that this meeting, which will be read about and talked about all over the
county, will lead to a large increase in the membership. This, I know, is what
Air. Cole himself much desires.

While we congratulate Mr. Cole and while we remember the benefits he has
conferred upon the County, I am glad we see no signs of flagging in the work,
and we look forward to that work being continued for many years to come.
There is something peculiarly charming in meeting with him and his two brothers
and two sisters, all of whom have for so many years worked shoulder to shoulder
for this good object (Applause). I am sure we all join in giving them our very
hearty good wishes for long life and happiness and every blessing for time and for
eternity (Applause).

Mr. David Howard said : My part in this matter has been a very pleasant
one. I must say that, when next I have to do with such a matter, I hope
I may have such a man of business as our President to take the lead and do all
the work. Nothing was left to me but to receive the money. On that matter,
may I say, there was one disadvantage : the letters came in so fast that I found it
perfectly impossible to write out all the receipts myself, and I have a horrible
suspicion that my clerk is not quite an accurate reader of handwriting. There-
fore, if some of you have had weird perversions of your names, please forgive, for
it was owing to the number of letters that came at once (Laughter).

One thing that made it extremely pleasant to act as Treasurer has been the
extreme readiness of the response. I have had a good deal of experience and I
think I can read between the lines of the letters that came with subscriptions.
In the case of some public subscriptions, one is conscious of something very
emphatic between the lines, such as " Oh, bothei this thing ! " But you cannot
read that between the lines of the letters I have received. There has been
nothing in them but extreme cordiality. The only expressions of disapproval I
received related to the fact that the limit was fixed at a guinea. On the other
hand, the expressions of approval which accompanied some ot the smaller
subscriptions made one feel that some of these smaller subscriptions really meant
as much as, or more than, some of those which reached the maximum allowed.
At all events, it is perfectly true, as the President has said, there was no
" flogging." The sum raised has been limited only by our own acton in limiting
the maximum subscription ; but I think it is sufficient, at any rate, to show the
hearty appreciation we all feel of the work of our honorary secretary and his
coadjutors, his brothers and sisters,

I hope it will be quite understood that this is not the sort of presentation
which one occasionally hears of — that sort which is sometimes caused by a
retirement and is sometimes intended to cause a retirement. There is nothing of
that sort in any of our minds, that is quite certain (Applause).

As to the work that has been done in connection with the Field Club an

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE. I2g

in similar directions by Mr. Cole and his brothers and sisters, I feel in the diffi-
culty which was wickedly expressed in the old Latin proverb — Pereant male qui
ante nos nostra dixissent. I heartily echo all that has been said on the subject.

Epping Forest is a very old memory of mine. My earliest ideas of any-
thing scientific— it is long over fifty years ago— were connected with my
being taught botany by my father in Epping Forest. I think I can now show the
exact place where I first found sundew. I cannot find it there now, because,
unfortunately, that particular pond is dried up. But that is one of my earliest
remembrances, and it has given me a very strong belief in the value of natural
history to the young in eliciting their sense of wonder and enquiry.

In conclusion, I wish to express my entire concurrence with this most
important movement and the extreme pleasure it has given me to have any part
in it (Applause).

Mr. T. Vincent Holmes, F.G.S., said : I have noticed that some local
scientific societies which, for a time, did very good work have lasted only
sixteen or eighteen years. They lasted only so long as their originators were
working in full vigour with them ; but, when they disappeared, their places were
not taken by others having the same interest in the society, and the society
gradually vanished. We are doubly fortunate in that Mr. Cole and his brothers
and sisters, who have served us from the beginning, are still with us at the end
of a quarter-of-a-century of existence. I trust we may continue to have their
services for another quarter of a century.

Professor Boulger said : Unlike some of those who have addressed you, my
acquaintance with the forest began simultaneously with my acquaintance with
Mr. Cole. It so happened that, when I was most associated with the work of
the Field Club, we had a somewhat stormy period, during which Mr. Cole and I
fought side by side in a very sharp contest which followed the rescue of Epping
Forest.

I am glad this is not a meeting of the Club, but that it is a special gathering
for the personal congratulation of Mr. Cole and his brothers and sisters. A great
many of us first made our acquaintance with Mr. Cole through the Club, and
that acquaintance has ripened into friendship. One may have official relations
with many men in connection with many societies, but they do not necessarilv
result in personal friendship. With Mr. Cole, however, I think all those who
have been actively associated with him in the work of the Club have come to
look upon him as a personal friend. We all congratulate him upon the result of
his long work, and we hope that that work may long continue (Applause).

Mr. P. Gellatly, J. P., Verderer of Epping Forest, said : I come here
to-night simply as a neighbour of our good friend and not to represent anybody ;
but, having been called upon unexpectedly to say something as a Verderer oi
Epping Forest, I should like to associate Mr. Cole with our work.

Since Epping Forest was dedicated by the Queen for the benefit of the people,
the Epping Forest Committee (of whom the Verderers form a part) have taken
the deepest interest in carrying out the duties devolving upon them and have
improved the glorious open space committed to their charge.

When they had made the important restorations to Queen's Elizabeth Lodge,
which they were bound to preserve as an historic building, and had restored it to
something like its ancient character, Mr. Cole saw his opportunity of utilizing
the spacious rooms as a Natural History Museum especially connected with the

130 PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

Forest. He worked with consummate knowledge in bringing about the arrange-
ments for establishing a beautiful collection of objects and so arranged the
specimens as to make them most valuable, not only for pleasure, but also for the
teaching of those who visit the Forest.

I may say on behalf of the Verderers that they are delighted to testify to the
great work accomplished by Mr. Cole.

Knowing (as I do) the Corporation of the City of London and its Epping
Forest Committee, I am sure they will cordially join with me in expressing their
admiration for the important work so admirably carried out by Mr. Cole, and
would thank him for the educational advantages bestowed on this neighbourhood
and the County, if not the country at large.

Mr.W.WHiTAKER, F.R.S., said when he saw the proposal that a dinner should
be given to Mr. Cole, his brothers, and his sisters, it seemed to him a very nice
idea. Mr. Cole did not want it all for himself— (laughter) — but he wanted his
relations and friends to join him. He (Mr. Whitaker) had been a lonely man :
that was to say he never had brothers or sisters and never understood what use
brothers and sisters were, but he began to understand it now. He wished he
had had brothers and sisters : he should have got them to do his work for him
(Laughter:.

The Essex Field Club was a natural history society which had the whole of a
large county to itself. That meant that it had a wide range for its work, but it
also meant that it had great responsibility. That Club bad to encourage the
scientific work of a large county, and it had done it well so far, largely through
the steady work of their good friend Mr. Cole. That it Mould continue to work,
he did not doubt. He looked forward to a long life of the Club with Mr. Cole
as secretary, and to a still longer life when most of them had gone, as they must
all go.

Mr. Horace B. Woodward eulogised the work of Mr. Cole, and said that
the publications of the Essex Field Club were the most interesting and the best-
edited published by any of the Field Clubs. He sympathised heartily with this
acknowledgment of the great services that Mr. Cole had rendered.

Mr. John Spiller, speaking as one of the original members of the Club,
heartilyendorsed all that had been said with regard to their indebtedness to their
founder, Mr. Cole, and the members of the family who had so heartily supported
him in the endeavour to spread the knowledge of science amongst those who had,
in that glorious county, so many opportunities of studying nature at first hand.

Mr. Wilfred Mark Webb, Hon. Sec. of the Selborne Society, said his

Society very cordially accepted Mr. Christy's invitation to take part in

honouring Mr. Cole. He pointed out the fact that Mr. Cole had given
hundreds of people great pleasure by his work in the county.

The Chairman: On your behalf, ladies and gentlemen, I have now pleasure
in handing Mr. William Cole the following address : —
To Mr. WILLIAM COLE, f.l.s., &c,

Hon. Sec. Essex Field Club,

Buckhurst Hill, Essex.
We, whose names are appended, desire to express to you our very warm
appreciation of the scientific, educational and other public work in which you have
been engage;! for many years.

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE. I3I

The foundation of the Essex Field Club, in 1880, was due to your initiative.
Since then, for a quarter of a century, you have acted continuously as its
Honorary Secretary and have edited the whole of its publications — a combination
of services which we imagine to be unique. To your labours during this long
period are due, in the main, the leading position the Club now holds among
Local Scientific Societies, and also the establishment of its two Museums (the
Epping Forest Museum, at Chingford, and the Essex Museum of Natural
History, at Stratford), of both of which you are now Curator.

In the Rescue of Epping Forest, you took an active part, and you have
watched jealously over its interests ever since.

We feel strongly that these long-continued and disinterested labours in
promoting locally the Cause of Natural Science deserve formal and public
recognition ; and the present time (in the twenty-fifth year of the Society which
you founded and have served so assiduously) seems peculiarly fitting for the
purpose.

We ask you, therefore, to accept our grateful thanks, together with the
accompanying Purse of One Hundred and Ten Guineas. The latter is, of course,
no more than a slight token of our appreciation ot your labours, any adequate
remuneration being obviously impossible.

Among those who have subscribed (169 in number, the subscription being
limited to one guinea) are the High Sheriff of Essex ; the Chairman of the Essex
County Council ; the Mayors of West Ham and of Chelmsford ; the Chairman of
the Epping Forest Committee of the Corporation of London ; all the four
Verderers of Epping Forest ; the President and many Fellows of the Royal
Society; many Fellows of other Learned Societies; the President, the eight
Past-Presidents, and numerous Members of the Essex Field Club ; and others
who have been associated with you in your work, or have admired it.

Whilst thus thanking you in particular, we desire also to thank your brothers,
Messrs. B. G. and H. A. Cole, and your sisters, Miss Cole and Miss Jane Cole,
all of whom have helped you throughout, as we know, most untiringly.

We trust that you and they may long continue the work you have carried on
so well, and for such a lengthened period.

Adams, H. J., f.e.s. Buxton, Lady Victoria [Essex)

Avenell, George Buxton, T. F. Victor, j.p. (High Sheriff of

Avery, John, c.a., f.s.s. Byford, J., junr. [Mayor of West Ham)

Baddeley, W. H. Cansdale, VV. D., f.e.s.

Barnes, H. J. Chancellor, F., j.p. (Mayor of Chelmsford)

Bartleet, H. S. Christy Miller, f.l.s. (President, Essex Field

Benham, C. E. Club)

Biggs, Miss M. M. Clapham, Mrs. E.

Bird, James Clark, J. A., f.e.s.

Boake, Arthur, f.c.s. Clark, Percy, b. a.

Boake, E. J., b.a. Clarke, F. C

Boswell, R. Bruce, M.A. Coburn, H. I.

Boulger, Prof. G. S., f.l.s., f.g.s. Colchester, The Bishop of

Bowles, E. Augustus, m.a., f.l.s., f.e.s. Coles, Mrs. Harriet

Brand, F. J. Colsell, Robert

Briscoe, A. E., b.sc. Corcoran. Bryan

Brown, Horace T., ll.d., f.r.s., f.c.s., f.g.s. Dalton, W. H., f.g.s., f.c.s.

Brown, VV. H. Dawson, Charles J.

Bryan, Colonel, c.e. Dent, Francis

Bullen, Rev. R. Ashington, b.a., f.l.s. Dewick, Rev. E. S., f.s.a., f.g.s.

Buxton, Edward North, j.p., d.l., etc. Duffield, F. H.

(Verderer, Epping Foiest) Dymond, T. S., f.c.s., f.i.c.

Buxton, Mrs. E. North Edwards, J. Passmore

Buxton, Gerald, j.p. Edwards, Stanley, f.l.s., f.z.s., f.e.s.
Buxton, Sir T. Fowell, Bart., k. cm. g., u.l., Elliott, F. W.

etc. (Verderer, Epping Forest) Evans, Sir John, k.c.b.,d.c.l., ll.d., f.r.s., etc.

132

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

Parmer, -Prof. J. B., m.a-., F.R.S.
Finzi, J. A.
Finzi, Mrs. J. A.

Pitch, E. A.. F.L.S., F.E.S.

Forbes, W. P.

Fountain. P. [Forest)

Gellatly, P., j.p., d.l. (Verderer, Epping

George, William

Gould, P. Carruthers

Gould, I. Chalkley

Green, F. W

Hall, Miss K. M., f.l.s.

Hall, Samuel, f.c.s.

Hanbury, Frederick J., f.l.s.

Harrison, A.

Harrison. A. W.

Harting, J. E., f.l.s:. t.z.s.

Hawkins, C. E. W.

Hildyard, F. W., f.l.s.

Hilleary, F. E., ll.d.

Holmes, Prof. E. M., f.l.s.

Holmes, T. Vincent, f.g.s.

Hope, G. P.. j. p., etc.

Horncastle, The Vicomte (Chairman, Epping

Forest Committee)
Howard, David, j.p., d.l., f. i.e., f.c.s.
Howard. D. Lloyd
Howell, Rev. W. C, m.a.
Hulton, The Rev. Canon, m.a.
Hunt, Rev. A. L.
Hunt, Reuben
Hurnard, S. F.. j p.
Hutton, Rev. A. B.. m.a.
Jennings Cecil F. J.
Johnson, Samuel H.
Johnson, Mrs. Samuel H.
Johnston, Andrew, j.p., d.l. (Chairman,

Essex County Council)
Jones, Robert, m.d.
Kenworthy, Rev. J. W.
Knight, J. W.. f.g.s.
Lach-Szyrma, Rev. W. S., m.a.
Landon, Colonel Frank, v.d.
Laver, Henry, f.l.s., f.s.a.
Linder, Ernest, b.sc.
Lister, Arthur, j.p., f.r s., f.l.s.
Lodge, Robert
Macandrew. W., j.p.
Maitland, Rev. J. Whittaker, m.a.
Mann, Mrs.

McConnell, Prof. Primrose, b.sc.
Mclntyre, F.
McLachlan, Hugh
Meldola, Prof. R., f.r s., f.k.s., etc

(President Chemical Society
Miles, George R.
Moon, Z., f.r. Hist. s.
Mothersole, Henry
Newton, E. T., f.r.s., f.g.s-
Nutter, Miss J.
Oldham, Charles
Paulson, Robert
Picton, Harold, b.sc, f.c.s.
Ping, W., m a., f.c.s.

PoultOIl, E. B., M.A.", F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

f.e.s., etc.
Prance, Rev. L. N., m.a., f.s.a.
Pritchett, G E., f.s.a.
Rayleigh, The Lord, m.a., d.c.l., ll.d., etc.

I President, Royal Society)
Read, Charles H., f.s.a., etc.
Read. E. A. (Verderer, Epping Forest)
Readjer, Prank W.
Reader, Thomas W., f.g.s.
Roberts, J. R., j p.
Robinson, T. G., j.p.
Rogers, John F.
Rose, Alexander B.
Rose, Matthew
Royle, Mrs.

Kudler, F. W., i.s.o , p.g.s.
Russell. Rev. A. F., m.a.
Russell, Champion B., m.a., J.P., etc.
Scourfield, D. J., f.r.m.s.
Selborne Society, The (W. Mark Webb,

f.l.s., Hon Sec )
Shenstone, J. C, f.l.s.
Shipley, A. E., m.a., f.r.s.
Sinclair. F. G., j.p.. f l s.
Smith, Frederick, j.p.
Smith, Worthington, G., f.l s., etc.
Snell, Henry C.

Sorby, H. C.,j.p., ll.d., f.r.s., f.g.s.
Spicer, Albeit, j.p.
Spiller, John, f.c.s , f.i.c
Spurrell, F. C. J., f.g.s.
Stable, D. Wintringham, ll.b., j.p. (High

Sheriff of Montgomeryshire)
Steet, C. H.
Sturdy. Francis T.
Tabor, H. S.
Taylor, Victor
Thompson, John
Thresh, John G, d.sc, m.b.
Turner E. E.

Unthank, H. W., b.a., b.sc.
Unwin, T. Fisher
Varley, F. H.. f.r.a.s.
Vaughan, G. E.
Vincent. Ralph
Wall, Howard
Wall, Mrs. Howard
Waller, W. C, m.a., f.s.a.. j.p.
Ward, Prof. H. Marshall, D.sc, f.r.s., f.l.s.

etc.
Warwick, The Countess of
Whitaker, W., b.a., f.r.s., f.g.s,
White, J. H.
Whitehead, H.
Wilks, Mark
Wilson, Joseph
Wilson, Rev. W L.
Winstone, Benjamin, f.c.s., f.g.s.
Wood. J. M. c.e.

Woodward, Dr. Henry, ll.d., f.r.s., f.g.s.
Woodward, Horace B.. f.r.s.. f.g.s.
Wright, Charles A., f.l.s., f.z.s.
Wythes, E. J., j.p., d.l.

Signed on behalf of the Subscribers

R. Meldola, David Howard, Miller Christv,

Chairman of Committee. Hon. Treasurer. Hon. Secretary.

Mr. David Howard. Mr. Cole, on behalf of the subscribers, I have great
pleasure in presenting you with a purse of One Hundred and Ten Guineas. With
a little more time, the amount would have grown yet further. As I have said

PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE. 1 33

before, if you only knew how pleasantly cordial were the letters which came with
the subscriptions, you would realize even more how your services and those of
your brothers and sisters have been appreciated.

Mr. William Cole, in reply, said : Professor Meldola, Mr. David Howard,
Mr. Miller Christy, Ladies, and Gentlemen — perhaps, I might say old friends to
all of you. On behalf of my sisters and brothers, as well as on my own behalf, I
thank you most heartily for the kindness winch has prompted you to present us
with this beautiful testimonial in appreciation of our services to the Club and our
attempt to cultivate a taste for natural history in the count)' of Essex.

I feel it difficult to express my feelings of gratitude to so many ladies and
gentlemen, well known in Essex and eminent in the scientific world, for the very
flattering way in which they have spoken of my share in the work of the Field
Club during the last 26 years. I do feel proud aud delighted that such a
gathering as this has been held, and thankful for the gracious expressions of
esteem in the letters which Professor Meldola has read. I know that my brothers
and sisters are equally grateful to you, and they desire me to thank you in their
names. This Address will always be a pleasant memorial of the many friendships
which we have formed during the progress of the Club, and of the interesting
investigations in which we have taken part. Some of these investigations have
added, I cannot help thinking, to the knowledge we possessed of the natural
history and archaeology of Essex, and I hope that, in the future, the Club will
engage in many more enquiries of the kind. I thank you also most sincerely for
this very tangible expression of your goodwill and for your presence on this
memorable evening, and I gratefully accept the flattering memorial and accom-
panying purse. I must add my full appreciation of the services of Mr. Miller
Christy in having promoted this most successful gathering. I know something
of secretarial duties, and I am sure that both he and Mr. David Howard must
have given up a great deal of their valuable time to the friendly work they so
kindly took in hand.

In accepting this present and memorial, you must not think that I arrogate
to myself the sole credit of promoting the interests of the Club. I have on my
right hand Professor Meldola, the first President— (applause)— and I have the
best means of knowing what intense interest he took in its inception. I well
remember the talks which led to the formation of the Club, and we all recall the
small assembly of supporters held at his rooms in John Street, Bedford Row,
at which the draft of his excellent " Inaugural Address " was read and discussed.
Whenever people apply to me for advice as to the formation of a Field Club or
similar society, I always refer them to Professor Meldola's " Address," as being,
perhaps, the best paper ever written on what should be the work of a society such
as ours. Not only did Professor Meldola follow up this remarkable programme
with a series of admirable addresses, but, at our meetings during the whole
26 years' existence of the Club, he has always, when present, led the discussion on
subjects brought forward in a way that has elevated the debate and given it a
truly scientific character. All members of the Club owe a very great debt of
gratitude to Professor Meldola for what he has done for the Society
(Applause).

We have always had a very excellent Council. I think that very few societies
of the nature of the Essex Field Club ever had a Council which has met iu
such large numbers and whose members took such an intense personal interest

134 PRESENTATION TO MR. WILLIAM COLE.

in the proceedings. We- have here to-night two of our past presidents, Professor
Boulger, who did such admirable service in the fight over some questions affecting
Epping Forest, and Mr. T. V. Holmes, whose work on the Dene-holes you all
remember. Mr. Holmes and I spent six weeks underground at Grays,
investigating these pits, and his report in our Journal sums up all that is really
known concerning them. Then there J£ Mr. Henry J. Barnes, our first
Treasurer, who did much valuable service. That reminds me that the Club was
much favoured in having, at one time, a lady Treasurer. Mr. Royle, who was
Treasurer, had to go abroad on scientific work, and Mrs. Royle very kindly took
his place.

With respect to our work, will you allow me to mention my brother, Mr.
B. G. Cole, who has acted as assistant hon. secretary during the whole life of the
Club. His has been a very quiet work ; it does not loom largely in the
Transactions of the club ; but it has been, nevertheless, of great importance to
its welfare.

Concerning the Museums, I should like to acknowledge our indebtedness,
first, to the Corporation of London and its Epping Forest Committee for their
kindness in granting the use of the old Tudor Lodge at Chingford as a home for
our Forest Museum, and, secondly, to the Corporation of West Ham for their
public spirit in agreeing to our application for the establishment of a County
Museum at West Ham. Whatever may be said of local corporations, there is
one thing which most of them strongly favour, and that is, education.
When Mr. Howard and others first met the Corporation of West Hani to discuss
our proposal, we were received in a most cordial wav. We are still being
treated most appreciatively, and the progress of the museum in West Ham is
mainly due to the friendly manner in which the efforts of the Field Club have
been met by the Corporation. I have every reason to believe that the
Corporation will continue to cordially support the Museum, and that it will
become in time a treasure-house for specimens illustrating the natural history of
Essex and a valuable aid in imparting instructions to young people and to schools
in the district.

With regard to our little museum in the Forest, it is not in any way complete,
and I should certainly like to see the scheme carried out as it should be. When
the initial work has been accomplished, I venture to hope that the City
Corporation will see their way to set it on a permanent and sound found ition
similar to the arrangements by which the Essex Museum has been taken over by
the Corporation of West Ham. But that is, of course, a matter for the future.

We have had to-night a great deal of retrospective talk. I prefer not to regard
our work as completed, but that rather we should take for our motto Tennyson's
lines — " That which we have done but earnest of the things that we shall do,"
and seek in the coming years even better lines of progress.

For instance, there is the proposal that the Club should organize a station for
local biological research. This is one of my pet projects. I believe it will be
brought before you a concrete form in the near future.

I have alluded to the exploration work we should like to do. There is an
immense field for it in Essex, both in archaeology and natural history. For
instance, the question of the oriyin and use of Dene-holes should be settled
definitely. I believe it is settled to Mr. Holmes' satisfaction and to my own, but
others are not quite so sure, and more work should certainly be dune. Then
there is the origin and meaning of our Essex "Red-Hills." These puzzling

NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. I35

remains should be taken in hand quickly, because they are fast disappearing from
various causes.

We have started a Photographic Survey of Essex in an admirable way iinder
Mr. Victor Taylor's superintendence, and I think we have every hope that in a
few years that will become an important branch of our work.

There is another little " fad " of mine which I hope to realize during the next
few years. I propose to make an attempt to register the voices of eminent men
in the county and of those who have presided over the meetings of the Club.
Then we have the vanishing speech of the natives ot Essex. School Boards
are invading the remotest places in our County and destroying all its peculiar
idioms, and I am afraid that the dialect songs of Essex will utterly disappear in the
course of a few yearc. I should like to secure some record of these old harvest
home songs and native carols on permanent phonographic cylinders or discs
before it is too late. I am told that in the Saffron Walden district there is a
real witch — or, rather, a woman who believes in witchcraft. Essex was always
famed for witchcraft ; and it would be well to register some native "incantations*'
while there is yet a chance !

In conclusion, the English language is, I think, deficient in expressions of
gratitude, and 1 cannot perhaps do more than say again, "I thank you."
(Applause.)

On the motion of Mr. Whitaker, a vote of thanks was passed
to Professor Meldola for presiding ; and the guests then
separated.

[Thanks are due to Mr. Edwin C. Davis, Chief Reporter of the Stratford
Express, who undertook, singledianded and for a merely nominal fee, the verv
arduous task of reporting the foregoing speeches, and did it most admirablv.l

NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED.

MAMMALIA.

Whale at Mersea in 1299.— Mr. Miller Christy sends
the following extract from The Wardrobe Accounts of King
Edward I. (Society of Antiquaries, 1787), page 76 : —

Ci/sfus circa balenam per vicecom? Essex. — Johanni de la Lee,
vicecom' Essex' et Hertford', pro denar' per ipsum solutis diversis
hominibus custodientibus quandam balenam captam in insula de
Merseye ; uno dolio vacuo empto pro eadem balena infra ponenda ;
sale empto pro eadem salienda ; cariagio ejusdem de predicta insula
usque Staunford ad curiam ; una cum expens' unius hominis equitio
conducentis eadem balena 1 ibidem mense Maii /-o 14 8

1 ? Eadem balena— sc. eadem balona.

l^f) NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED.

We are indebted to the kindness of Mr. W. C. Waller, M.A.,
F.S.A., for a translation of the Latin : —

Charges in respect of a whale per the Sheriff of Essex. — To John
de la Lee, Sheriff of Essex and Herts, for moneys paid by him to
divers persons in charge of a certain whale caught off the island of
Merseve [Mersea] ; for one empty cask bought to put the whale in ;
for salt bought to salt the same ; for the carriage of the same from the
island aforesaid to Staunford 2 to the court ; together with the
expenses of one man with a team conducting the said whale there in
the month of May £o 14 8

INSECTS.
Plusia moneta at Buckhurst Hill. — I had the pleasure
of netting two specimens of this moth in our garden last
summer — one on the 7th of July and the other on the nth of
the same month. I saw another a few evenings later, but did
not catch it. The moths were hovering over the flowers of the
Rose-bay, Epilobium angustifolium, of which we have a great store
in the garden. This adds another to the three or four records
of this moth in Essex. It was first recognised as British in
1890. — B. G. Cole, Buckhurst Hill.

Prodenia littoralis, Boisd., a New British Moth. — At
the meeting of the Club on January 27th, 1906, Prof. R.
Meldola, F.R.S., exhibited, on behalf of Major Robertson,
a specimen of this scarce European moth, which had appeared
in his breeding cage in July last. All the Major's larvae in this
cage had been collected in the Bournemouth district, Hampshire.
Prodenia littoralis has a wide distribution in S.E. Europe, Asia,
India, &c, and it is to be hoped that this handsome Noctua, like
Plusia moneta, has "come to stay." The coming summer may
bring further news of it as an immigrant in Britain. — B.G.C.

2 ? Staunford--sc. Stanford-le-Hope, near the Thames, and about 30 miles from Mersea.
It is not apparent what court is meant : Morant sheds no light on it.— W.C W

Local Publications /H

BY

Benham & Co., 24, High Street, Colchester.

THE ESSEX REVIEW. Published Quarterly. Edited by EDWARD

A. Fitch ami Miss C. Fell Smith. Demy 8vo. 64 pages, is. 6d.

post free. A fully illustrated Quarterly Review ot all that is of per-
manent interest in Essex. Established 1892. Back Volumes may be had

bound in cloth, price 7s. 6d. each, excepting the earlier volumes, which

are 21s. each.

Annual subscription, if paid in advance, 5s., including free delivery.
"The best of the county magazines."
THE RED PAPER BOOK OF COLCHESTER. Transcribed

and Translated by \V. Gwrnky Benham. Crown 4to. Fully Indexed.

A volume crowded with local information hitherto unpublished. 25s. nett.
GUIDE TO COLCHESTER. By W. Gurney Benham. Crown 8vo.

140 pp. Over 100 illustrations. 6d. ; by post 8d
COLCHESTER DIRECTORY AND ALMANAC, id. ; by post 3d.

Cloth 6d. ; by post 8d.
COLCHESTER OYSTER FEAST. Its History and Toast Lists.

Profusely illustrated. An amusing and unique volume. Demy 4to.

5s. nett. By post 5s. qd.
ESSEX BALLADS, and other Poems. By Charles E. Benham.

Third Edition. Prefatory note by the Right Hon. the Countess of

Warwick, is. 6d. ; by post, is. 8d.
WILLIAM GILBERT, of COLCHESTER. A sketch of his Magnetic

Philosophy. By Ch'as. E. Bknham. 2s. nett. Post free 2s. 2d.
ANCIENT 'TOKENS of COLCHESTER. By Ernest N. Mason.

Fully illustrated descriptive, and historical account of the tokens issued in

Colchester in the 17th and 18th centuries. 5s. nett. By post 5s. 2d
GUIDE TO COLCHESTER CASTLE. By Charles E. Benham,

8 illustrations. Demy 8vo., 6d. ; by post, ;d.
COLCHESTER NEW TOWN HALL. By Wilson Marriage

and W. Gurney Benham. Fully Illustrated. Demy 4to. Second

edition. 1900. 2s.; by post, is. 3d.
COLCHESTER TOWN HALL Illustrated. Fcap, 8vo. 32 pages,

3d. ; by post 3 id.
OLD COLCHESTER. A few chapters for young Colchester. By

Chaulks E. Benham. Illustrated, is. ; by post, is. 3d.
AMONG THE TOMBS OF COLCHESTER. Full account of

local monuments, tablets, epitaphs, &c. 6d. ; by post, jd.
ANCIENT LEGENDS CONNECTED WITH THE ARMS OF

COLCHESTER. By W. Gurney Benham. Illustrated explanation

of the Arms, with the Stories of St. Helen and King Coel. Demy 8vo.

3d. ; by post, 4d.
TWO LEGENDS OF COLCHESTER. By Alfred P. Wire.

Illustrated by W. Gurney Benham. Demy 8vo. 3d. ; by post, 3|d.
OLD KING COEL. By Charles F. Benham. Fcap. 8vo. Price 2d. ;

by post, }d.
THE TENDRING HUNDRED IN THE OLDEN TIME.

Bv J. Yei.loly Watson, F.G.S., J. P. 5s. ; by post, 5s. 4d.
NOTES on the GEOLOGY and ARCHEOLOGY of WALTON

CLACTON and DISTRICT. By II. Stopes, F.G.S., and W. H.

Dalton, F.G.S., 6d. ; by post, ;d
MALDON. By Edward A. Fitch, ex-Mayor of Maldon. Illustrated.

1888. Fcap. 8vo. Paper cover. Price 3d. , by post, 3*d.
KING COEL POSTCARDS. Series by Hervey Elyves. In colours, 6d.
THE ESSEX LABOURER, DRAWN FROM LIFE. By W. G. B.

Illustrations. 4to., 6d. ; by post 6£.
COLCHESTER WORTHIES ^POSTCARDS. Gilberd, Harsnett,

Audley, and Grimston Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, id.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE

BEING

A MONOGRAPH OF THE TERRESTRIAL
ISOPOD CRUSTACEA OF THE BRITISH ISLES,

BY

Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S.,

AND

Charles Sillem,

With 25 plates and 59 figures in the text.

TALL DEMY $w., 6s neti.

DUCKWORTH and COMPANY., 3, HENRIETTA
STREET, LONDON, W.C.

ZU T2ear;QSooft anb €afenbar of f#e
&BH? fiefb CfuB for 1905*6.

The Council are issuing annually a new publication,
to be entitled The Yeav-book and Calendar, of which the first
volume, containing four plates, has been sent out to Members.
Additional copies may be had from the Hon. Librarian, price is.,
and to Members gd., post free. It will be published yearly
hereafter on the 20th April— that is, shortly after the close of the
Club's official year.

The Year-book represents the business side of the Club's work.
It contains no scientific matter, which will continue to appear in the
Essex Naturalist, as hitherto.

Those friends of the Club wishing to extend its sphere of
usefulness will find a few copies of the Year-book an excellent
agent for propagandism.

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY.
Price to Non-Members, 5s. per part, post free.

Part Y., Vol. XIV] [APRIL, 1906.

The

Esse* Naturalist :

BEING THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ESSEX FIELD CLUB

EDITED BY

WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Honorary Secretary and Curator.

(&ontznt&.

PAG I
Further Notes on the Pile-dwelling Site at Skitt's Hill, Braintree,
Essex. — A Kepoit on the excavation of a portion of the Relic-
bed, October, 1900. By F. W. Reader {With Two Plates
and mfmercnts Illustrations). . . . .. .. 137

Selenite. By W. H. Dalton, F.G.S., F.C.S... .. .. 147

A Whale at Mersea in i2gg. By J. E. Harting, F.L.S., F.Z S. .. 149

The Corresponding Societies' Committee of the British Associ-
ation, London, 1905. Report of Club's Delegate, F. W.
Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S .. .. .. ..152

The Essex Field Club : Reports of Meetings, April 24th, 1905, to

April 7th, 1906 .. .. .. .. .. 155

7'he Authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinions contained in
their respective papers.

PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX.

Entered Stationers' Hall.] [Published July, 190G.

Editorial communications to \V. Cole, " Springfield," Buckhurst Hill, Essex,
and Advertisements to Messrs. Benham and Co., Printers, Colchester.

Uhe jfauna anb tflom of Essey,

As Illustrated in the
Essex Museum of Natural History.

I have great pleasure in announcing that the Essex Museum
of Natural History has now been furnished with four blocks of
handsome Cabinets intended to contain a County series of
Insects, Mollusca, and Crustacea. Several new Wall-cases have
been made so as to suitably accommodate the Collection of
British Mammalia, which has lately received numerous additions,
including models (the work of Sherrin Bros.) of the Essex
Cetacea. We have also constructed eight Herbaria Cabinets, to
house the series of specimens of Flowering Plants, Mosses, Algae
Lichens, &c. More space can now be allotted to the collection
illustrating the works of Early Man, and this is also being re-
arranged. Work on these collections will now betaken in hand,
and it is hoped that they will prove helpful to students, and will
lead to a greater interest being taken in the Essex Fauna and
Flora. To aid in this work we are acquiring some of the best
Faunistic books on British Natural History, which will be
available for consultation in the Museum itself.

I need not point out to my fellow Members and friends the
great difficulty often experienced in obtaining authentic specimens
from a limited district. I should highly esteem any aid that
County and London Collectors could afford. Localised
specimens of Essex Birds, Fish and Mammals, Insects of all
orders, Land and Freshwater and Marine Shells, Plants, etc., if
in good condition, will be of the greatest assistance, and donors
will have the satisfaction of knowing that their specimens will
be properly preserved, and will be available for study in the future.

Birds, Fish and Mammals in the flesh may be forwarded
direct to the Taxidermists, Messrs. Sherrin Bros., 38, Fielding
Road, Chiswick, London, W. A post card should precede the
specimens. Carriage may be charged forward.

William Cole,

Hon. Secretary and Curator.
Essex Museum of Nat. Hist.,
Romford Road,

Stratford, Essex.

January, 1906.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PL XXVI.

Figs, i and 2.— Skitt's Hill, Braintree.
General Views of Excavations.— For explanations, see text.

ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIV., PI. XXVII.

X

(0

w

CO

CO

'cS

&r

^

w
g

^

H

5

£

<u

o

cq

r->

„

a

J

o

i— i

:-

X

<D

T3

CO

rt

H

-

H

rg

L^

5

en

w

^_i

f , ,

(=*,

c

o

OS

g

fe

U

CO

r /

H

r 5

O

£

o <

137

FURTHER NOTES ON THE PILE-DWELLING
SITE AT SKITT'S HILL, BRAINTREE, ESSEX.

A REPORT ON THE EXCAVATION OF A PORTION
OF THE RELIC-BED, OCTOBER, 1900.

{With Plates XXVI. and XXVII. and numerous Illustrations)

By F. VV. READER.

[Read November Zbth, 1904.]

IN the report of Mr. Kenworthy's discoveries at Skitt's
Hill 1 it was mentioned that there was a portion of the relic-
bed uncovered, which was shortly to be excavated. The hope
was expressed that the Essex Field Club would endeavour to
obtain permission to excavate this portion, in order to be able to
examine it more closely than was possible when it was merely
being dug to obtain the material for brick-making. Unfortu-
nately the time and resources of the Club were so absorbed in the
preparation of the Museum at West Ham that it was found to be
impossible to do anything in the matter at that time.

During the month of October, 1900, the brick-makers again
commenced digging, and on my hearing from Mr. Ken worthy
that a favourable opportunity had arrived for seeing the section,
I at once went to Braintree and watched the operations con-
tinuously for three days, when all the exposed bed at this level
was dug out.

During the time I was able to make several sketches and
photographs of the sections and had the opportunity of examining
the deposit with some thoroughness.

This observation proved to be in no way conclusive as regards
its being a pile-dwelling site, but revealed some points which
may be of use to those who in the future find opportunities to
interest themselves in the locality.

The most important result of my visit was to obtain a more
accurate section of the bed of the stream than that published in
the former report.

In the section previously published, the river bottom is
represented at about 10 feet from the surface. The brick-
makers dig to this depth, after which the digging is abandoned,
not because the bottom is reached, but in consequence of the
cutting becoming waterlogged.

1 Essex Naturalist, Vol. XI., pp. 94-126

I38 PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT's HILL, BRAINTREE.

The accompanying view (Fig. 1, PI. xxvi.) is taken looking
to the S.E., down the course that has been excavated, and shows
the ridges that are left between successive years' work, the
excavated spaces between being filled with water. The partition
on which the man is standing is that which divides the portion
of the bed under consideration from that previously excavated.
This view also helps one to realise the appearance of the original
river before its bed became silted up. The present stream, only

FIG. 3. — PLAN OF THE PORTION OF THE RELIC-BED, SKITT S HILL,

excavated Oct., 1900.

a few feet wide, runs between the willows seen in the mid-
distance, and from the position of the spectator is some 70 feet
to the left.

On ascertaining that the bottom of the clay had not been
reached at the depth of 10 feet, I obtained permission to have a
hole dug below this level to find the old river base. This revealed
a very different state of things from what had been supposed, the
bottom being found at a depth of 17 feet from the surface, or
seven feet below the bottom of the relic-bed. As the hole was dug

PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT S HILL, BRAINTREE. I39

somewhat on the side of the stream, the deposit would probably
foe a little shallower than at the centre. This depth of the
alluvium agrees with that given by Mr. W. H. Dalton, F.G.S.,
in the Geological Survey Memoir, 1 where he states that the section
showed in 1872 " sixteen to eighteen feet of fine grey and buff
loam resting on a thin bed of sandy gravel, in a broad shallow
hollow of the London Clay."

A general view of the excavation is given in Fig. 2., PI. xxvi. This is taken
from the point C on plan, Fig. 3, and shows at the far end the section on the
line B — D, which is parallel with the hedge, and is the part furthest from the
edge of the original stream on which the spectator is standing.

The lower part of this section, which has come darker on the photograph,
•consists of washed clay, containing no organic remains. The overlying light
portion is alluvial brick-earth, above which is the darker surface soil. The man
Avith the wheelbarrow is standing on the top level of the relic-bed, but in this
portion of the filling the characteristic black earth containing wood extends from
the bank on which the spectator is standing only to about the spot marked by
the drain-pipe on the left of the picture. From this point it runs obliquely
towards the spectator, F — G on plan, Fig. 3.

The hole, Fig. 5, was dug at the spot marked with the x in Fig. 2, Plate xxvi.
A.F.G.C. The upper portion of the Relic-bed, consisting of a sandy clay about
one foot in thickness, and fairly well conforms to the fii'st spit of the bed.
It should be explained that the workmen dig the deposit in spits of a foot
deep, a method of great service in keeping the relics distinct in their proper
levels.
A.E.G.C. Part of the lower portion of the relic-bed, composed of very black
earth and sand, largely mixed with fragments of wood, twigs, and leaves.
Beyond the darkly shaded portion this level of the relic-bed becomes almost
pure white sand containing little organic matter. This extends only to
within about five feet of the extent of the upper portion of the bed, shown by
the dotted line and along, which lies a log 15 feet long. See Section,
Fig. 5. The thickness of this layer was from one to two feet.
F.B.D.G. Fine washed clay.

It will be seen that the mixed earth of the relic-bed extends
from the side of the stream only about 17 feet on the line C — G,
running obliquely into the bed of the stream to a distance of
about 50 feet on the line A — F. The thickness of this deposit
was greater by about one foot at C — G than at A — F.

All the rest of the filling at this level, the unshaded portion on
the plan F.B.D.G., was the normal clay filling of the stream.
For general section and explanation see Fig. 4 on page 140.

This diagram (Fig. 5) shows the portion of the relic-bed level
which differs from the general filling of the stream in being
principally composed of sand, and contains quantities of wood,

1 Shed 47, IV. IF. Essex and N.E. Herts, p. 66.

140 PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT'S HILL, BRAINTREE.

S °

a a

-

C 0>

M

J< (^

H

HH N

en

<

3 > £

CM

;?:

O

c ^

« H 3

■-

—

<

bn

>

'3

Kg"-*

~ s

"a.

w

crt fc£ p

O

<

U -H rn

</-. rt ^

,5 c 5

> " s5

Z

O

_■!-»«-]

cs

r i

it:

rt r • ^

~

',_;

•J-D >

-£

<

OA

s rt «

tu

w

mfl^

,ii

a

!

II

PQ

PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT S HILL, BRAINTREE.

141

etc. Below is projected the additional filling found by the hole
that was dug below the level of the brick-making excavation.

I.— Sandy clay mixed with wood. This layer fairly well conforms to the
first spit, 12 inches deep; it represents the upper portion of the relic-bed, where
in former diggings the greater proportion of relics of human agency were found.

Nine burnt flints and three flint-flakes occurred.

2 and 2 a.— The lower portion of the relic-bed, which was very inegular and
consisted for the most part of sand, one to two feet deep. At the end nearest
the bank of the stream (a) the soil was very black, containing a quantity of
vegetable remains, but this only continued for a distance of about 17 feet, when
it merged into white sand ; (2 a) which extended for another 12 feet, but this
stopped about five feet short of the end of the layer above it.

In the white sand very little wood or other organic matter occurred. Three

SURFACE

"&-°SJ3°J*of>f**J>j>t<> — ___ __ _ __

FIG. 5.— ENLARGED PORTION OF RELIC-BED ON LINE A — F.

burnt flints, three rib-bones, and seven vertebra?, (?) red-deer. A quantity of
hazel nuts were found in the black soil.

3. — Fine, grey, washed clay, which ran irregularly, rising almost to the top of
spit II. at A and to the top of spit I. at F, forming a basin in which the
relic-bed rested.

No wood or other objects occurred in the clay.

3A.— Fine grey, washed clay, the continuation of the deposit underlying the
relic-bed and extending below the base of the brickmaker's excavation to the
depth of one foot.

No organic remains.

4. — Log lying horizontally, four feet six inches long.

5. — Large log, 15 feet long, lying along the edge of the relic-bed, see plan,
Fig. 3-

5 A. — Small log lying transversely.

6. — A layer of small pebbles and white sand, one inch thick.

7. — Very black peaty deposit, containing quantities of leaves, eight inches
thick, hazel nuts, acorns, andplentiful remains of insects.

I42 PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT S HILL, BRAINTREE.

This layer had very much the appearance of the bottom of a forest pond,,
mixed with animal excrement, and was probably the edge of a very sluggish
stream where animals came to drink.

Some of the soil containing the insects has been kindly examined by Mr. G. C.
Champion, F.E.S. ; he reports, however, that the remains are too fragmentary for
identification,

8. — Fine washed clay, one foot deep, similar to 3 and 6.

9. — Pebbles and sand, two inches deep.

10. — Washed clay, four feet six inches, similar to 3, 6, and 9.

11. — River ballast, base of old river at a total depth of about 17 feet from the-
present surface.

By probing this ballast was found to run up towards the bank somewhat
sharply.

RELICS.

Animal Remains. — The only bones which occurred were
fragments of ribs and vertebrae, apparently of red deer.

The Wood. — Though not so plentiful as in former parts of
the diggings, a great quantity of wood came from the portion
shaded darkest on the plan (Fig. 3). A large log, 15 feet long,
was found lying along the line of the sandy deposit F — G on
plan, 5 on the section (Fig. 5).

Two large pieces of timber are shown in the section
(Fig. 5). One lying horizontally (4) ; another shown end-wise
(5). Numerous smaller pieces occurred, but not in any
position to suggest that they had been placed as stakes.

Masses of twigs, leaves, and fragments of wood occurred in
the portions shaded darkest on the plan and sections. All the
logs were denuded of roots and branches.

A number of fragments have been examined by Mr. George
Ellis, who has identified the greater quantity as oak, with a few
pieces of elm and willow.

The Pottery. — Nearly all the pottery has come from the
brick-earth overlying the relic-bed, and is of the Romano-British,
period.

The workmen, some of whom have been working here for
upwards of fifteen years, told me that the low r est level at which:
pottery has been found is quite on the top of the relic bed, but
it has rarely been found at this level.

Some fragments of coarse pottery, but of uncertain age, were
mentioned in the former account as coming from the relic-bed. 3

From the present portion we have an interesting fragment of
definite character found at a depth of 6 feet 6 inches, which is

3 Essex Naturalist, Vol. xi., p. 113.

PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT S HILL, BRAINTREE. I43

the surface of the relic-bed. This is black hand-made pottery
of the bronze or early iron ages. (A, Plate XXVII.)

In the brick earth above were several fragments of Romano-
British pottery, from depths of 2 feet to 4 feet 6 inches. These
have been recorded by Mr. Kenworthy as they have occurred
from time to time during the removal of the brick-earth, and sent
by him to the museum to be added to the other objects from
this site. They are mostly of the grey ware with the base of a
large pot, nine inches wide, of black ware, red inside.

General Remarks.

It would seem that this portion of the relic-bed was an
unfavourable place from which to obtain evidence relating to
the pile-structures. From the small portion of this level that
was occupied by the black earth characteristic of this bed and
the scarcity of the relics as compared with the portions
previously excavated, it would appear to represent a break in
the artificial construction, if such it be.

There was nothing in the position of the logs to warrant the
supposition that they had been placed to secure the bed. The
large log lying along the edge of the deposit might be con-
sidered to indicate its having been so placed to protect the bed
on this edge. (See Plan, Fig. 3, and Section, Fig. 5.)

On the other hand it might be argued that the black deposit
had accumulated there owing to the log having fallen in that
position. The logs being stripped of their branches might
equally be the result of rolling in the stream as that of human
agency, and in fact logs are usually so found in alluvial
deposits.

During the whole history of this river since it began to fill up
the old bed, it seems to have been an extremely sluggish stream,
depositing very fine clay from the base up to a height of 10- 11
feet, over which, largely by the action of rain wash, the
brick-earth has accumulated. It is interesting to notice that
this change in the deposit from clay to brick-earth appears to
have taken place about the period of the Roman occupation.

The only breaks in this slow regular deposition are seen
first at a (I., Fig. 4), where a layer of pebbles and sand occurs.
This is a thin layer only two inches deep, but shows some short
and temporary change, during which the carrying powers of the

144 PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT'S HILL, BRA.INTREE.

stream were greatly increased, after which the normal conditions
are resumed, and a further 12 inches of line clay is deposited.

Again at b (I., Fig. 4) comes a seam of very black earth,
eight to ten inches deep, largely composed of organic matter,
which shows that the stream had assumed lacustrine conditions,
either through a lowering of the level of ihe land or the passage
of the stream having become obstructed. This state of things
must have lasted for a considerable period for such a depth of
leaf mould to accumulate, even allowing for the probable greater
luxuriance of the vegetable growth of that time.

This period of quiescence was followed sharply by one of
activity, which suggests the bursting of a dam, for the top of the
black earth was covered with a thin layer of sand and pebbles
to the thickness of an inch. Overlying this, the fine clay is again
regularly laid, followed eventually by the brick-earth and surface
soil.

The uppermost deposit of clay is broken at the side of the
stream by the irregular and mixed deposit, considered to be the
artificially constructed platform of the pile-dwelling community.
This contains stones and other objects which seem to be beyond
the carrying power of the normal stream at the time, judging by
the portion of the deposit at the same level, but nearer the centre
(see section, Fig. IV.) unless we are to regard this irregular
deposit as a buried channel, the result of excessive flood, cut in
the regularly laid clay. The probability of this view is increased
by the sandy nature of the lower portion of this deposit.

Although the examination here recorded has not given
definite evidence of the pile-structures, it serves to throw some
light on the age to which the relic-bed belongs by the addition
of the underlying deposits to the section.

The relic-bed having previously been supposed to rest
directly on the base of the old river, it was concluded that it
represented the entire accumulation since the silting up of the
stream bed. Owing to this it was further held to have been
occupied by man as a dwelling site from Neolithic times down
through the bronze and early iron ages. 4

From this misconception of the actual facts Mr. Kenworthy
was led to say : —

" I think that the silting up has been much more rapid since the occupation
by the Romans, owing probably to the destruction of the forest and its under-

4 Essex Naturalist, Vol. xi., p. 1 16.

PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT S HILL, BRA1NTREE. I45

growth, the land Cultivation and the baring of the virgin soil. Bearing this
•consideration in mind, we may say that the pre -historic accumulation was
perhaps ten times slower than the Roman, and that of recent times much more
rapid than the Roman and Mediaeval." 6

With the section as now revealed, this view must be consider-
ably modified. Instead of the relic-bed resting directly on the
river-ballast, we have beneath it an alluvial accumulation of
7-8 feet, or a total depth from the surface of 17-18 feet. Mr.
Kenworthy lias given us the depth of 4 feet 6 inches from the
surface as the lower horizon at which Roman objects occur; we
now have 13 feet of deposition below this representing pre-
historic accumulation.

As the silting-up of our present river-system is generally
considered to be coeval with the commencement of the Neolithic
period, the assignment of the Skitt's Hill pile-structures to this
era was, perhaps, incontrovertible so long as their foundations
were said to rest close on the river base, and Mr. Kenworthy
might well suppose that the silting-up of the river was so much
slower in pre-historic times, if after continuous occupation
through the long period of the Neolithic and Bronze ages only
about three feet of filling had been accumulated, while above
was about 6 feet 6 inches, representing the comparatively brief
period of historic times.

The brick-earth provides very little reliable evidence as to
period, owing to its being the result of rain-wash. It may conse-
quently contain objects derived from higher levels, which would
not occur in any regular order of superposition. Romano-
British pottery extends more or less throughout this deposit.
Although some of the pottery may be of the class now recognised
as late-Celtic, it is impossible to decide this from the fragments
that have come to hand. Many of the forms of late-Celtic
pottery survived into the Romano-British period, and are
commonly found in association with the more purely Roman
shapes. It is only when late-Celtic pottery is found quite
distinct from Roman relics, that it can be taken as any indication
of an earlier age.

In the absence of positive evidence, therefore, I have thought
it better to omit any portion of the rain-wash as being late-Celtic,
and simply to divide the whole filling of the stream broadly into
historic (including Romano-British) and pre-historic.

5 Ibid. p. 99.

I46 PILE-DWELLING SITE AT SKITT's HILL, BRAINTREE.

Below the brick-earth comes the upper surface of the relic-
bed, which is also the level at which the alluvial clay terminates
in the general filling of the stream's bed.

It seems certain that no Roman pottery has ever been found
at this depth, and that we may safely place this deposit as pre-
historic. It is here that all the remains have occurred which
have been thought to indicate the existence of pile structures.

It was pointed out in a note to the former account^ that the
occurrence of stone implements and flint flakes is not necessarily
an indication of the Stone-age. 7 Stone implements have
frequently been found in association with later remains, while
flakes occur in great numbers in the Romano-British villages,
exceeding the proportion found in the settlements of the Bronze
Age. Large numbers of flint flakes also frequently accompany
the interments of the Anglo-Saxons. The great abundance of
flint-flakes in Roman times was referred to by General Pitt-
Rivers in his address to the Archaeological Institute, 1897. 8 He
indicates difficulty of accounting for these, and suggests the use
of the tribulum and their uses for other agricultural purposes.

Although no object of metal has yet been produced from the
relic-bed at Skitt's Hill, it has also been pointed out that this
cannot be regarded as evidence of the Neolithic age of the
deposit in the face of the abundant evidence of the use of metal
tools on the antler and bone objects.

Another example of this indication is here presented (Fig. B.,.
Plate XXVII). This piece of rib-bone bears unmistakable marks,
produced undoubtedly by a good metal saw, while its peat-
stained condition shows clearly that it came from the relic-bed.
This object was discovered in the previous excavation, but was
by an oversight omitted from the former report.

In the filling under the relic-bed we now have the
the deposition that may be attributed to the earlier divisions of
the present geological period, viz., the Neolithic and the Bronze
ages, while the relic-bed may with more reason be considered
to represent the early Iron age, the period to which most of the
relics that have been produced from it seem to belong.

If, then, this fresh evidence serves to remove any grounds for
supposing the Skitt's Hill pile-dwelling site to be of Neolithic

6 Essex Naturalist, Vol. xi.. p. 119

7 Ancient Stone Implements, Sir John Evans, p. 282.

8 Crunboiiu Chase, Vol. IV., p. 17.

SELENITE. I47

age, it at least adds to the interest of Mr. Kenwortby's-

discoveries, and contributes to the probability of his conclusions

being correct by bringing the site in point of time more into

line with similar discoveries elsewhere in this country, which, as

Dr. Munro has pointed out, are mostiy of later date than those

of the Continent. Apart from this particular consideration,.

regarding which so little fresh evidence has been adduced, the

filling of the stream presents features sufficiently interesting to

warrant their record.

[The Club is indebted to Mr. Reader's kindness for the blocks illustrating
his paper. — Ed.]

SELENITE.

BY W. H. DALTON, F.G.S., F.C.S.

IN his paper on Sulphate of Lime in Essex Soils and Sub-
soils, published in the Essex Naturalist [ante, pp. 62-4),.
Mr. Dymond advances a novel view to account for the crystals
of selenite in the London Clay, viz., that the sulphate of lime is
supplied by the surface soil. He furnishes statistics to show
that the rainfall of 13 years would, apart from impoverishment
by the removal of crops, wash out all the sulphate in the soil,,
and argues, incontestably, that continuous replacement must be
in process. But for this he suggests that the lime is supplied by
the farmer, the sulphuric acid by the rainfall. The alternative
source which he propounds for the acid, fermentative action in the
soil, is an alternative more apparent than real, in that fermenta-
tion, or any process, biological or chemical, can affect only the
matter coming within its sphere of action ; it may modify the
compounds present, but cannot create such as are absent, and I
may remark that one such process is to separate, not to unite,
sulphuric acid and lime. The source of the sulphur, then, is the
point at issue; geologists generally say it is iron-pyrites; Mr.
Dymond, rainwater.

That the water in house-tanks contains sulphates is undeni-
able, but are not these derived wholly from the soot of coal-
smoke, the bulk of which is precipitated on the roofs collecting
the rainwater ? What amount of sulphates would be found in
rainwater collected at a distance from such sources
of sulphur as coal-fires, brick-kilns, and sea-spray. And
why are not the waters off the chalky boulder-clay

I48 SELENITE.

charged with sulphate of lime far more heavily instead
of much less so, than the London-Clay waters, seeing the
ample natural supply of the calcareous element. The boulder-
clay land is improved by lime-dressing, where the surface-soil has
been impoverished by the removal ^of its calcareous matter, but if
any sulphurous rainwater can percolate into the mass of the
boulder-clay (which Mr. Dymond holds to be permeable^), there
should be far more abundant crystals of selenite formed there
than in the almost limeless London Clay; but none such are
to be found.

That the London Clay requires lime-dressing is prima facie
evidence of the normal acidity of the clay when the finely-
divided pyrites (to which the blue colour is due) has been
oxidised by atmospheric action into iron sulphate and free
sulphuric acid, which in the absence or deficiency of lime or
alkali has to remain unneutralised.

I would therefore answer Mr. Dymond's closing query in the
full negative ; it is not conceivable that the selenite in the
London or any older clay derives either its lime or its sulphur
from external sources ; it owes a part only of its oxygen to the
air, and its water of crystallisation to the rain ; the important
constituents are native to the deposit. If I mistake not, selenite
nowhere occurs in superficial deposits, nor in unweathered and
absolutely impervious clays. The action of water charged with
oxygen is essential to the disruption of the pyrites, but it seems
necessary for the production of crystals that the supply of the
ingredients be slow, and under conditions which as yet we have
not been able to determine.

A totally different problem is presented by the sulphate of
baryta, constituting the crystalline lining of some septaria. In
what condition was this almost insoluble mineral or its con-
stituents, at the time of the contraction of the nodule, and
the infilling of the radiating and concentric fissures resulting ?
The recently-detected occurrence, in a Lias septarium, of zinc-
blende is a kindred puzzle.

NOTE BY MR. DYMOND.

While I must defer to Mr. Dalton's opinion that selenite

nowhere occurs in superficial deposits of the London Clay, I do

not think the arguments he adduces against my suggestion

" that a part of the sulphate of lime that hardens the water

A WHALE AT MERSEA IN I299. 149

. . . . may be due to the interaction of sulphuric acid and
lime in the surface soil " are very convincing.

If the boulder-clay is pervious to rainwater (which I assumed
on agricultural grounds, and because the clay of the chalky
deposites is granular and not colloidal), any sulphate of lime
would be dissolved away, and no accumulations would be
expected. I think Mr. Dalton is mistaken in supposing that
rainwater owes the whole of its sulphuric acid to the combustion
of carbonaceous fuels, though it undoubtedly owes most. Nor
can I agree that a London Clay soil requires lime-dressing mainly
because of the production of sulphuric acid from pyrites ; the
de-calcified Boulder-clay requires lime-dressing just as much.

The subject, which is one of great practical importance is
more fully discussed in the May number of the Journal of
Agricultural Science (1905, page 217).

T. S. Dymond.

A WHALE AT MERSEY IN 1299.

By J. E. HARTING, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

THE extract from the Wardrobe Accounts of King Edward I.
quoted by Mr. Miller Christy in the last number of the
Essex Naturalist (ante p. 135), having reference to the
occurrence of a supposed whale at Mersea in 1299, is of much
interest and suggests a little criticism. For two reasons it
appears to me doubtful whether the Latin word balena (or balcrna)
is in this case rightly applied to a whale. The entry in the
accounts referred to includes a charge for supplying an empty
cask for the purpose of transporting the creature to Stanford,
from which we are to infer either that the animal, if a whale,
was a very young one, or that the cask was a very large one.
Again the name balcrna (qAXaivn), as I shall presently show,
was formerly sometimes applied to the porpoise. It will be of
interest to look at some of the earliest applications of the word,
which, almost needless to say, are to be found under the head of
" Fishes."

In the Colloquy of Archbishop Alfric, of the 10th century, com-
posed with the object of teaching the Anglo-Saxon scholars
Latin (Mus. Brit. Bibl. Cotton Tiberius, A. iii.) there is an
amusing dialogue with a fisherman in which the A.S. hwcel
is rendered in Latin cetus and balana, both these words

150 A WHALE AT MERSEY IN 1299.

occurring sometimes in the same sentence. For example,
the fisherman who describes himself as accustomed to fish from
a boat with nets as well as with a hook (hamus, A.S. angil) after
enumerating the different kinds of fishes taken by him in fresh-
water, is asked why lie does not fish in the sea. He replies that
he does so sometimes, but that it necessitates having a larger
boat. To the enquiry whether he cares to catch a whale (cetum)
he answers, " No, because it is too dangerous. He is safer on
the river in his own little boat than going off with a fleet of
larger vessels whaling." " Quia periculosa res est capere cetum.
Tutius est mihi ire ad amnem cum nave mea, quam ire cum
multis navibus in venationem balance " ; adding that it is
preferable to catch a fish that he can kill, than to pursue one
that might kill him or sink him, and his companions too. This
fisherman was wise in his generation.

Apart from its bearing on the present question, the dialogue
quoted is of interest as showing that the Anglo-Saxons were not
unacquainted with the whale-trade, of which fact, moreover,
there is other evidence.

If we turn to the supplement to Archbishop Alfrics Vocabulary
— the oldest document of the kind in the English language —
printed in Wright's Vocabularies, vol. i., 1857, we find
under " Nomina Piscium " hwcel, balena, vel cete, vel cetus, vel
pistrix. 1 While in another Anglo-Saxon Vocabulary of the nth
century, printed in the same volume, only "cetus " (whence the
modern cetacean) is given, as if the more preferable word.

In a semi-Saxon Vocabulary of the 12th century, however,
this word is glossed mcBve-swin (Germ, meer-schwein, Fr. marsouin),
that is sea-hog, or porpoise (deriv. porc-pisce), though in the
Supplement to Abp. Alfvics Vocabulary, above mentioned, the
mcere-sivin is identified with the Dolphin.

In a Pictorial Vocabulary of the 15th century, stated by
Wright to be preserved in a MS. in possession of Lord
Londesborough, we find Hcec balena, anglice '■ a porpeyse."

From these examples, then, it will be seen that both before
and after the date of the entry in the Wardrobe Accounts of
Edw. I. the word "balena" was used with so uncertain a
signification as to render it very doubtful whether the animal
captured on the Essex coast in 1299 was of a species to which

1 Pistrix used for any sea monster, whale, shark, or saw-fish, the last named being that
to which the modern form pristis is exclusively applied.

A WHALE AT MERSEY IN I299. I5I

that term would be applied by zoologists at the present day,
while the statement that an empty cask (dolium vacuum) was
provided for its removal from Mersey Island to Stanford renders
it more probable that the creature was, not a whale, but a
porpoise, more especially as the capture took place in the month
of May.

Two slight misprints in the Latin extract may be corrected,
namely, cum expend uiiius hominis equitio should read hominis
.equitis, and in the footnote eadem balana instead of balona. Mr.
Waller criticising the expression usque Staunford ad curiam, says
it is not apparent what court is meant. Probably we are to
understand that in the month of May, 1299, the King and his
court happened to be sojourning at Stanford, and so thither the
so-called "whale" was carried as "a royal fish" to the
Sovereign.

A discussion of this point would carry us too far from the
subject, but it may be stated that from the Quo Warranto Rolls,
temp. Edw. I., it appears that a stranded whale belonged as " a
royal fish " to the king, but might be claimed as a " wreck of
the sea " by any subject able to prove that he and his ancestors
had been " immemorially in seizin of all manner of wreck of the
sea, to wit royal fish, wrecked ship, and of all other things which
would be called wreck of the sea " Whether at the present day
in a claim against the Crown for a stranded whale a plea would
be of any avail which averred that " a whale is not a fish,'
would be a question for the lawyers to settle ; it would at all
■events give rise to an amusing conflict of opinion between the
law-officers of the Crown and the zoological experts who might be
called as witnesses on behalf of the claimant.

An earlier instance of the occurrence off the Essex coast of a
cetacean of some kind is mentioned by Mathew Paris in his
Chronica Majora, wherein we read of a whale which, coming up
the Thames in the year 1240, could scarcely pass between the
piers of the bridges, and was driven up the river as far as
Mortlake. " Ad manerium autem regis quod Mortelac dicitur,
insequentibus multis navigatoribus cum unfibus et balistis et
arcubus perveniens, ibidem jaculorum ictibus vix est peremptus."
This may have been a small Rorqual, but from its ability to pass
the bridges is more likely to have been a Porpoise. An Essex
specimen of Rudolphi's Rorqual (Balanoptcra bovealis) was captured

I52 THE CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE

at the mouth of the river Crouch in November, 1883 (Zool. 1884,
p. 27). It was claimed by Sir Henry Mildmay as lord of the
manor, and on legal proceedings being taken to settle the
question of ownership, a verdict was found in his favour. In
October, 1887, another specimen of Rudolphi's Rorqual was
taken in the Thames off Tilbury, an account of which was given
by Mr. Walter Crouch, with an illustration, in the Essex
Naturalist, 1888, pp. 41-46.

THE

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES' COMMITTEE

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

London, 1905.
REPORT OF THE CLUB'S DELEGATE.-

F. W. RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S., Vice-President E.F.C., Secretary of the Conference

of Delegates.
[Read November 2^th, 1905.]

IT is usual for the Delegates from the Local Societies to meet
in Conference during the Session of the British Association,
at its place of meeting. But as the Association met this year in
South Africa, it could hardly be expected that the Delegates
would assemble there; and it was consequently suggested by
Mr. Whitaker, F.R.S., the Chairman of the Corresponding
Societies' Committee, that a Conference should be subsequently
held in London — a suggestion which met with the approval of
the Council of the Association. Accordingly a Conference was
held on Monday and Tuesday, October 30 and 31, at the Rooms
of the Linnean Society. It w r as satisfactory to find that it was
attended by nearly thirty delegates, representing places as
distant as Belfast, Perth, Glasgow, and Paisley. The Conference
was presided over by Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., and was
in every way a most successful meeting.

The Chairman, in opening the Conference, delivered an
address, in which he dealt sympathetically on the value of the
work done by many of our local societies, but deplored the
tendency in certain quarters to allow the picnic element and
other sources of popular attraction to assert undue influence.
With regard to the evening meetings, he referred, not wnthout
approval, to the practice of making a special feature of
" exhibits," and threw out the suggestion that papers on the
unsolved problems of science might be found extremely useful

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 153

to students. " We are distinctly in need of a series of books to
treat of ignorance rather than knowledge." The Chairman was
not disposed to hide the fact that the local societies had not
followed to any great extent the organised lines of research
which had been suggested from time to time at the annual Con-
ferences ; but he found a partial explanation of this neglect in the
spirit of individualism, so characteristically British, which
penetrates even to our scientific societies. " We cannot endure
the feeling that we are merely units in the working of an organ-
ised machine ; we all wish for freedom to follow our own
inclinations."

Dr. William Martin, of the Temple, introduced a discussion
on " The Law of Treasure Trove, especially ia relation to local
scientific societies."' He held that in the interest of archaeology
the law, so far from being abolished, as some have suggested,
should rather be extended. Meanwhile, he suggested that
printed notices should be sent to every post office, where they
should be publicly displayed, in order that it might be generally
known that any finders of valuable antiquities would be reason-
ably, or even liberally, rewarded.

Mr. W. Morris Colles, the Director of the Authors'
Syndicate, and Mr. Harold Hardy, of the Temple, explained to
the delegates the present Law of Copyright as it affected the
proceedings of scientific societies. It appears that if a paper be
read at a society, where the audience consists only of its
members and a limited number of invited persons, the author is
entitled to its copyright, but if read before a meeting to which
the general public are admitted the author can only protect his
copyright by certain legal methods of a cumbrous character.
With regard to lectures orally delivered, in which the lecturer
has at present little or no protection, Mr. Hardy suggested that
the law relating to lectures should be made analogous to that
which rules in the case of plays. In the discussion by the
delegates, the general opinion seemed to be that scientific
societies had no wish to restrict the re-publication of any of their
papers, since this, if duly acknowledged, was rather a compli-
ment to the Society, and decidedly assisted in the dissemination
of scientific, knowledge.

At the second meeting Professor G. S. Boulger initiated a
most interesting: discussion on the Preservation of our Native

154 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE.

Plants. As many plants are in serious danger of extermination
by trade-collectors, students of botany, and others, it seems
necessary to appeal to legislation for their protection ; but it
was suggested that before this could be secured, a leaflet might
be distributed among teachers^ and, perhaps, a " Reader "
published, explaining the danger to which certain rare plants are
subjected, and pleading for the conservation of objects of natural
beauty and scientific interest. The subject was warmly taken up
by the delegates, and their local influence at field-meetings and
in nature-study classes will probably be of much service.

It is the usual practice at the annual Conference of Delegates
to receive reports from the Committees of the several sections of
the Association, with reference to any local work which might be
usefully undertaken by the Societies. In consequence, however,
of the meeting having been held this year in South Africa, the
sections were not sitting during the London meeting. For this
reason no detailed reports or suggestions were received, but a
few of the secretaries of the sections had sent short letters, one
of which ought to be of some interest to our Club. Dr. H. W.
Marett Tims, of Cambridge, who acted as Secretary of the
Section of Zoology in South Africa, wrote explaining that he
had not been able to communicate with the Sectional Committee,
but on his own responsibility suggested the following subjects as
worthy of local consideration, namely : —

i. A systematic study of the fresh-water Plankton of
East Anglia.

2. A study of the Rotifera of East Anglia.
This suggestion your delegate undertook to bring to the
notice of the Essex Field Club, and if some local naturalists can
be induced to follow it up, the Conference may be indirectly the
means of adding something to our knowledge of East Anglian
.zoology.

155

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB.— REPORTS OF
MEETINGS.

VISIT TO SAFFRON WALDEN DISTRICT, ASHDON,
WIMBISH, WENDENS AMBO, &c.

Easter Monday, April 24TH, 1905.

■Conductors : The President (Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S.), Rev. C. E. Barnes,
and Mr. Guy Maynard, Curator of the Saffron Walden Museum.

The object of this Meeting was mainly to renew our acquaintance with the
interesting plant, the true Bardfield Oxlip {Primula elatior, Jacq.), by visiting
several woods in the charming district in which it is a native. Mr. Christy is the
authority on the distribution and variation in this country of the Oxlip, and very
full information will be found in his papers on the subject in vol. iii. of the
Transactions of the Essex Field Club and in the Journal of the Linnean Society
vol. xxxiii.).

We had also the benefit of the presence of Mr. W. Bateson, F.R. S., and Mr.
E. R. Punnett, M.A., the well-known students of variation and " Mendelism "
in plants and animals.

The company assembled at 10 o'clock at Saffron Walden, and a public
breakfast was served at the " Rose and Crown " Hotel, the President in the
chair. By the kindness of Mr. Maynard each guest was furnished with a
specimen of the Oxlip, the objective of the meeting.

Afterwards the very interesting museum was visited, under the direction of
the Curator. Some account of the museum will be found in the report of a
former visit to Saffron Walden in Essex Naturalist (vol. iii., pp. 290-1).

The company was then conveyed in brakes to the several woods, where the
"Primulas" were in profusion. And here Mr. Christy and Mr. Bateson^gave a
running demonstration and dissertation on Primula elatior, certainly one of the
most local and interesting of Essex plants.

In the afternoon the drive was continued to the pleasant village of Wendens
Ambo, where the Rector (the Rev. C. E. Barnes) met the party at the Church.
The architecture was commented upon by Mr. Hugh McLachlan, F.R.I.B.A.,
and Mr. Barnes showed the ancient Registers, which he had recently bound up
and restored.

The Rector and Mrs. Barnes most hospitably entertained the party at tea a
the Rectory.

After tea a short Ordinary Meeting (the 238th) was held, Mr. Miller Christy
President, in the chair.

New Members— Mr. Jonathan Seabrooke, The Elms, Grays, and Mr.
Joseph Wilson, Hillside, Avon Road, Waltharasto-w, were elected Membeis.

The President, in the name of the Club, warmly thanked the Rector and Mrs.
Barnes for their great kindness and hospitality, and referred to the fact that it was
on Easter Monday 25 years ago that the first Field Meeting of the Club took
place, the meeting-place being Ongar (see Proceedings E.F.C., vol. I.,
pp. viii.-x.)

Mr. W. Cole seconded the vote of thanks, and said that he was particularly
grateful to Mr. and Mrs. Barnes, inasmuch as such aid as that they had afforded
very materially lightened the difficulties iu arranging meetings on such days as
Bank Holidays.

I56 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. REPORTS OF MEETINGS.

The Rector replied in a very humorous speech, and alluded with much
feeling to the friendships which had begun at the first field-meeting, and which
had been maintained for a quarter of a century.

The company left bv the 5.42 train from Audley End, and the ease with which
the several journeys homewards were made was a demonstration of the
possibilities of holding enjoyable meetings on Bank Holidays.

[It came as a great shock to all who were present, and indeed to all old
members of the Club, to hear of Mr. Barnes' death shortly afterwards.

He was evidently very weak at the meeting, but with his usual spirit and good
nature exerted himself to welcome the Club, and the visit to the Rectory will
long remain a pleasant, if sad, remembrance with many of us.)

SPRING RAMBLE IN EPPING FOREST, AND 239th

ORDINARY MEETING.

Saturday, June yd, 1905.

On this afternoon one of the usual spring rambles took place in Epping
Forest. The party assembled at Theydon Bois Station at 3.30 p.m. The route-
was over Piercing Hill to the spot formerly known as Blackheath. Here is a
plantation, principally of Larch, Scotch-pine, and Spanish chestnut, planted more
than 20 years ago by the late Major McKenzie, the then Superintendent of the
Forest. Mr. S. A. Skane (assistant in the Herbarium Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew), kindly acted as Botanical Conductor, and made some remarks on the
trees here. Prof. Primrose McConnell also spoke on the growth of these trees,,
and on the prospects of Forestry in Essex. The ramble was then continued
through Epping Thicks, and so on to Ambresbury Banks, botanical observation
occupving attention, and Mr. Skan gave many lecturettes on the plants gathered..
Near Ambresbury Banks another detachment of members coming from Chingford
joined the party.

Tea was taken at the " Wake Arms," and afterwards an Ordinary Meeting
(the 239th) was held, Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. George Chambers, 29, Buxton Road, Chingford, was elected a member..

The Chairman congratulated the members on the very pleasant afternoon's
ramble, and at his request Mr. Skan gave an interesting and discursive address,
touching on many botanical problems suggested by the plants gathered. He had
had brought from K.ew some specimens presenting special features, and explained
their peculiarities.

Prof. Meldola, during some remarks, exhibited two moths taken that afternoon,
Euclidia mi and Venilia maculata.

The homeward ramble was through Monk's Woods to Loughton, Mr.
Skan's botanical expositions being continued on the way. The weather was
delightful, and rendered the simple forest walk very enjoyable.
Whitsun Monday, Junk 12th, 1905.

An excellent meeting had been planned for this day — to meet at Chelmsford,,
explore the Danbury district, and to visit Mr. and Mrs. Briscoe at Little Baddow.
After the issue of the circular the weather broke and continued exceedingly
stormy and unsettled, right up to the day of meeting, Very few names having
been sent in, at the last moment the President and Secretaries decided with,
great reluctance to abandon the meeting.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. REPORTS OF MEETINGS. l^J

PICTORIAL RECORDS OF ESSEX : SCHEME
INAUGURATED.

Saturday, July 8th, 1905.

On the invitation of the Earl and Countess of Warwick, members of the Club
.and many friends, in all about seventy, assembled on this day at Easton Lodge,
Dunmow, the Essex seat of the family, for the purpose of inaugurating the
" Photographic and Pictorial Survey of Essex." This Association was founded,
as a Permanent Committee of the Essex Field Club, on the 17th December 1904,
for " the purpose of gathering a permanent collection of photographs, engravings,
sketches, and pictures of objects of interest, as well as maps, plans and other
documents, selected with a view of giving a comprehensive pictorial history of
the County of Essex, and the neighbouring rivers and sea." The general scope
•of the scheme upon which the Survey is working was set out by Mr. A. E.
Briscoe in a paper published in the Essex Naturalist (Vol. xiii., pp. 1-5), and
since reprinted. To this, and to the official Prospectus, the reader is referred.

Such recognition and encouragement was quite characteristic of Lady
Warwick, through whose kindness the privilege ofa meeting in Easton Park was
due. The bulk of the party made Bishop Stortford the starting point iu the
brakes, but some left the train at Takeley, where the brakes called.

The weather was gloriously fine, and the drive to Easton Lodge was much
enjoyed. In the Park, the visitors had, in addition to the lovely scenery, much
wild life to interest them. Hundreds of rabbits skurried to safe quarters round
the base of great trees, which formed a noble avenue, and, later, large herds of
deer, many possessing fine antlers, herds of cattle, and numerous sheep of special
breeds were to be seen. Arriving in front of the mansion, the Countess,
accompanied by her son, Lord Brooke, met the party, and gave them a cordial
welcome, subsequently escorting them through the house to the lovely and
•extensive gai'dens on the north side. The Italian Garden, with its delightful
lily pond, was much admired, and after roaming round a large lake, which lilies
and bulrushes shared with many varieties of water fowl, the visitors returned by
way of the rose garden, which was most beautiful of all.

Lady Warwick presided at the luncheon, with Lord Brooke in the vice-
chair, and at the conclusion of the repast Mr. David Howard. J. P., D.L.,
proposed the health of the hostess, and expressed the thanks of the visitors
individually and collectively for the kindness extended to them. Lady Warwick,
in replving, said that she had been requested by Lord Warwick to express his
regret at not being able to be with them, but he was at Brest, on a yachting
cruise. She was sure the photographic project would be a very useful addition to
the work of the Essex Field Club, whose members she was always pleased to
welcome at Easton Lodge.

A meeting was subsequently held in a commodious double tent, amongst trees
at the back of the house, furnished most comfortably and having something of an
Eastern aspect. Mr. Howard again presided, and said that any of them who had
studied history knew how we suffered because records had not been kept, and he
often longed in vain for information on various points, The Club would
undoubtedly earn the thanks of posterity if it kept pictorial records of passing
•events and places of interest in Essex.

Mr. Miller Christy, the President of the Club, said that the Council of the
Photographic Survey was, strictly speaking, a Committee of the Field Club,

I58 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS.

Their aim was, in brief, to write the history of the county in pictures. The scheme
had been anticipated in several other English counties, notably in Warwickshire,
where it had been at work for some years. In Surrey, too, a start had been
made. There were in the county thousands of amateur photographers, there
being 50 organised societies, and it was hoped to enlist their sympathies in the
work. The financial question was not a serious one, a comparatively small sum
being required for the purposes of the Survey. The minimum subscription
would be half-a-crown, but many would, no doubt, subscribe more.
Besides collecting current photographs, they hoped to become the
custodians of many prints and engravings that already existed which threw
any light on the social life and customs of the people of the county. He pro-
duced a sample collection of photographs such as it was proposed to collect,
which had been contributed by the Woodford Photographic Society. The
photographs were mostly half plates, and accompanying them were schedules of
information as to place, time, and photographer, etc. In conclusion, Mr.
Christv said he hoped people who had prints or pictures which they were willing
to hand over to the Council, would communicate with the hon. secretary, Mr,
Victor Taylor, at the Essex Museum ot Natural History, where the photographs,
etc., were to be stored under the care of Mr. W, Cole, the Curator of
the Survey.

Mr. Albert E Briscoe, B.Sc, Principal of the Municipal Technical Institute,
West Ham, then explained the project, and he was followed by Professor
Meldola, F.R.S., President of the Royal Photographic Society, who gave
further reasons why the scheme should be supported, and by Mr. F. W. Kudler,
F.G.S., who thought the new project was calculated to exercise a great influence
throughout the county, and the collection, interesting as it would be from the
beginning, would in time become invaluable.

The Chairman brought the discussion to a close by describing the step
they had taken as an act of commor.-sense, which had been defined as the highest
kind of science.

Some remarks on the progress of the Survey will be found in the Annual
Report of the Council, printed in the Year Book of the Club for the
current year.

The company, on the invitation of Lady Warwick, then paid a visit to
Bigods Hall, formerly the county seat of Lord Fitzgerald, and now a Secondary
and Agricultural School, founded by the Countess, and there they were enter-
tained to tea by the Principal, Mr. T. Hacking, and Mrs. Hacking. Subsequentlv
Mr. Hacking gave an explanation of the methods of the School, and described the
curriculum, taking the visitors on a tour of inspection. The school, which is on
the most modern lines, proved very interesting, and the work done there is
evidently very thorough, embracing poultry-keeping, fruit culture, bee-keeping,
and manual instruction, manurial experiments, and meteorological observations,
etc.i

In the evening the main portion of the Company drove back to Bishops
Stortford, for the return trains.

[The above is compiled from the excellent reports in the East Anglian Daily
Times and the Essex County Standard, — Ed.]

1 See reports of previous visits to the School in former volumes of Essex Naturalist.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS. I59

ANNUAL INSPECTION OF HAINHAULT FOREST AND
240th ORDINARY MEETING.

Saturday, July 22nd, 1905.

On this afternoon the fourth annual meeting of inspection of the newly-
recovered lands of Hainhault Forest was held, the object being to watch the
gradual upgrowth of the projected woodlands. Mr. E. N. Buxton was
announced as leader, but was unfortunately prevented from attending by the
illness of a near relative. Mr. Francis Dent very kindly undertook to fill his
place, and Mr. Alfred Buxton was also present.

The party was a large one, and much interest was manifested in the work or
reclamation. The party walked up from the Grange Hill station to Chigwell
Row, crossing the Recreation Grounds and entering the woods at the part known
as " Ethelstone's Forest." Then a ramble was taken through the older
woodlands, viewing the new or newly cleared rides, and improvements made in
removing the old and diseased undergrowth, etc. At the gate near
Cabin Plain the recovered lands were entered, and Mr. Dent gave a series of
peripatetic demonstrations on the work now being carried out in laying down
grass so as to obtain a good surface for future planting. The first part of the
area visited showed a capital growth of goise and heather; the seedlings,
however, had only thriven where protected by scrub from the cattle put on by
commoners in the exercise of their rights. On the way up to Cabin Hill, on the
Lambourn side, several old enclosures were met with. These had been illegally
cleared in the old days, and were now restored to the forest. Up to this point,
on the top of the hill, all that had been done was the removal of some of the
inferior pollards, and the opening up of some glades. From this spot there is a
good view over the Dog Kennel Hill, where the problem of converting arable
into forest land is being dealt with.

Tea was taken in the great barn at Foxborough Farm, and afterwards an
Ordinary Meeting (the 240th) was held, the President, Mr. Miller
Christy, F.L.S., in the chair.

New Members. — Mr. Guy Maynard, Curator of the Saffron YValden
Museum (on behalf of the Committee of the Museum), and Mr. F. T. Sturdy,
" Surinam,'''' Holly Bush Hill, Snaresbrook, were elected.

The President expressed the regret of the Club at the absence of Mr. Buxton
and its cause, and said that the experiments in re-afforesting now being carried
out would have a wide and permanent interest.

Mr. Dent then gave an interesting and valuable detailed account of the
methods and results of the work on the open lands, and of the difficulties and
successes experienced. The great difficulty was the establishment of good turf,
with the character of the virgin turf of Epping. At first he was in favour of
inoculation, but it was found that the expense of labour and cartage was a bar to
that method. Mr. Buxton had resolved that this should be more or less open
down-land, with patches of gorse* and thorns. Experts had been consulted with
respect to the production of a forest turf; few of them grasped the problem, and
recommended grasses better adapted for agricultural purposes. Some turf had
been brought from Epping, and this consisted principally of bent, fine-leaved
grasses and sheep's fescue. It was decided that native grasses should be sown
Some of the land had been treated with basic slag, with good results. Quitch
and slender foxtail would probably disappear here, as they had done in Epping

l6o THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS.

Forest; It would be a good many years before a uniform turf was produced, for
■cattle grazed unevenly. The seedlings in the experimental plots had not done
well, perhaps from the great growth of weeds, or from a want of humus in the
soil. Mr. Dent spoke in terms of warm commendation of the manner in which
the tenant of the farm had carried out Mr. Buxton's instruction. He also gave
some interesting details about the fauna of the new ground. A litter of fox cubs
had been found, and there was reason to hope that badgers might come over
from Epping. There had been an extraordinary number of partridges at
Tambourn and Haiuault ; linnets were abundant, and the goldfinch had become
a regular breeder in the district — indeed, he knew of five nests this season within
half a mile of his house. He had seen a pair of kestrels and a pair of sparrow-
hawks, and nightingales were plentiful.

The President, in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Dent for his services that
afternoon, and for the paper he had read, discussed some of the points raised by
this valuable series of experiments. He thought that Mr. Dent's remaiks should
.be published in the Essex Naturalist, as they would prove of value in future
years as a record of the reclamation.

Attempted Partition of the County —He also alluded to the attempt
which had been made to sever part of Essex from them, and to include the
parishes in Hertfordshire. The Club, in common with the Essex Archaeological
Society and other bodies, had made a vigorous protest, and had written to the
local members of Parliament on the subject. He was glad to say that the oppo-
sition had proved successful, and the order of the Local Government Board had
not been confirmed by Parliament.

Professor Meldola. F.R.S., cordially seconded the vote of thanks, and fully
supported the idea that Mr. Dent's notes should be published. He suggested
that supplements might afterwards be issued, recording tie progress of the
experiments from year to year.

After the meeting Mr. Dent gave some further demonstrations in the field,
and the members walked down to the station for the return trains.

ANNUAL FUNGUS FORAY.
Saturday, October i 4 t h , 1905.

Tins meeting was held at the " King's Oak " Hotel, High Beach, Epping
Eorest, under the arrangements common to the Foray for many years past. A
room was reserved at the Inn, wherein the specimens collected were determined
and classified.

The first collecting party started from Chingford Station in the morning at
11.30. Great regret was expressed at the absence ot Dr. Cooke, wdio was unable
to undertake the fatigue of a long day in the Forest.

Mr. George Massee, F.L.S. {President of the British Mycotogical Society),
kindly undei took to act as principal Botanical Conductor, and we were favoured
with the company of a considerable number of well-known Botanists, including
Mr. A. Lister, F.R.S., ami Miss Lister, Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., Secretary to
the Li/mean Society, Mr. E. M. Holmes, F L.S., Professor Silvanus I hompson,
F.K.S., Mr. YV. M. Webb, F.L.S. , and many others.

The afternoon party assembled at Theydon Bois, and rambled through the
woods to High Beach, collecting bv the way.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS. l6l

Mr. Massee named and arranged the specimens. Fungi were less plentiful
in individuals than on some previous occasions, but the species noted were some"
what numerous, 2O5 in number, and included several new to the Forest list, and
some very rarely met with. Mr. Massee reported that " perhaps the beautiful
specimens of Hydnuin imbricatum L. and Polyporus rufescens Berk, were of
the greatest interest. Roth are rare everywhere in England, and the latter is very
seldom met with outside the forest. Among the Agarics the genus Tricholoftia
was represented bv no fewer than ten species, perhaps a record number for the
Forest. Of these Tricholoma oreinum, Fr., 7'. boreale, Fr., and 7'.
subpulverulentum, Pers., are new Forest records, I believe."

" Among Micro-Fungi determined afterwards were Helicomyces roseus, Link,
and Tetrasporia aristata, B. and Br, ; these are also new to the Forest."

Demonstrations on the many line specimens in the room were freely given
during the afternoon by the many skilled botanists present.

Tea was taken about 5.30, and on returning to the exhibition room, Mr.
Massee gave an Address on some recent researches on "Diseases of Fruits,"
mainly those caused by various minute funguses. He demonstrated the very
interesting life-histories of several of these fungi, and discoursed of the best
methods to be adopted in resisting their attacks. The address was illustrated
by a set of very beautiful original colour drawings from Mr. Massee's own
pencil.

The President, Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., proposed a vote of thanks to Mr.
Massee for his great services during the day, and for the exposition he had just
given of a subject ot the greatest value to gardeners and farmers in the county.

The company separated about eight o'clock, after a most interesting and
successful meeting. The forest had never looked better at any previous " Foray,"
and the excellent outcome of the forestal operations in former years was
apparent in the vigour and luxuriance of the trees and undergrowth.

THE 241st ORDINARY MEETING.

Saturday, October 28th, 1905.

The first meeting of the winter session was held on this evening in the
Physical Lecture Theatre of the Municipal Technical Institute, Stratford (by
kind permission of the Education Committee, and the Principal, Mr. Hogg), at
6.30 p.m. The President, Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., occupied the chair.

New Members. — Mr. A. F. Hogg, M.A. [Principal of the Technical
Institute) and Dr. T. Battersby Jobscn, weie elected members.

Rocks and Minerals Presented.— Mr. W. H. Dalton, F.G.S., F.C.S.,
•exhibited and presented a collection of specimens of Rocks and Minerals
intended to fill vacancies in the type collection so instructively arranged by Mr.
Reader in the gallery of the Museum. The series comprised about 40 specimens,
.and Mr. Dalton gave a brief description of them. He has since sent in a
detailed account of the specimens for preservation in the Register of the
Museum. Mr. Thomas W. Reader also made some remarks on the collection.
A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Dalton for his kind donation.

Etching by Landseer Exhibited —Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., exhibited
an etching of " a French Hog, the property of Mr. Bacon, of the ' Black Boy'
Inn, Chelmsford, published August 1st, [818, by \V. H. Simpson." The

l62 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS.

picture is inscribed as having been painted by Edwin Landseer and etched by-
Thomas Landseer. These were the late Sir Edwin Landseer and his brother r
when boys, then living at Beeleigh Abbey, Maldon. The print is very rare, and
Mr. Christy knew of one other copy only, which is in the British Museum.

Old Boundary Stones of Waltham Forest.— Professor Meldola,
F.R.S., exhibited a series of recent photographs of the old boundary stones of
the Forest of Waltham which had been placed in his hands by Mr. Campion, of
Walthamstow. Professor Meldola alluded to his paper on these stones,
published some years ago in the Essex Naturalist, and reiterated the opinion
then expressed that such interesting relics should be preserved, either by the
Forest authorities or the Essex County Council. — It was agreed that this matter
should be brought forward at a subsequent meeting.

Denudation of the Coast at Cromer. — Mr. John Spiller, F.I.C.,
exhibited four photographs of Cromer and the beach (looking south) showing the
headland or promontory near Overstrand, where the great landslip occurred in
May and August, 1904, when an estimated total of 150,000 tons of earth fell
into the sea. The views were taken about 20 years ago by Mr Marley.

Queen Elizabeth's Lodge in 1794. — Mr. John Avery presented to the
Club, for the Epping Forest Museum, an old print of Queen Elizabeth's Lodge,
Chingford. This print is presumed to be dated 1794, and presents an aspect of
the old Tudor building, differing from any print in the possession of the Club.

Norsey Wood, near Billericay. — Dr. Salter, F.G.S., presented, through
Mr. T. W. Reader, some specimens of ancient pottery from Norsey Wood, near
Billericay, Essex. Mr. J. Chalkley Gould made some remarks on the wood. The
remains there are very interesting from an antiquarian point of view, and showed
evidences of occupation by British, Roman, Saxon, and later peoples. The
site would well repay careful scientific examination.

Mr. W. Cole said that the interesting nature of the remains in Norsey Wood
had been repeatedly pointed out to him by the late Colonel Branfill. The
Colonel had contributed some remarks on the subject to the Essex Archaeological
Society (Trans. E Arch. Sac. Vol. V., N.S., pp. 226 — 36).

Presentations to the Library. — The Hon. Librarian (Mr. T. W.
Reader) announced some important contributions to the Library, including a
subscription copy, in white \ellum, ofGodman's Mediccval Architecture in Essex,
presented by Mr. Andrew Johnston, J.P., and complete sets of the Journal of
the Anthropological Institute (new series) 1899 to date, and of Alan, presented
by Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

Vote of Thanks to Mr. A. E. Briscoe — On the motion of the
President, supported by Prof. Meldola, F.R.S., and Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S.,
a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. A. E. Briscoe, B.Sc, A.R.C.Sc ,
etc., the late Principal of the Municipal Technical Institute, for his uniform kind-
ness and sympathy in connection with the work of the Museum, and for his
valuable services in the cause of education and the progress of Natural Science in
the district.

Votes of thanks were also passed to the exhibitors and donors of books and
specimens.

Paper Read — Mr. I. Chalkley Gould then read a paper entitled " Straw
Plaiting: A lost Essex industry." — During the reading ol the paper Mr. Gould.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. REPORTS OF MEETINGS. 163.

gave demonstrations of the methods employed in preparing the straw, and
exhibited the little bone cutters used in splitting the straws, and the wooden
"mills" for flattening the strips before plaiting. Mr. Gould said that he was
largely indebted to Mr. Miller Christy for statistical details of the rise and decay
of this interesting rural industry, and Mr. Christy also spoke, supplementing the
author's remarks with much local information.

A discussion took place, in which Prof. Meldola and Mr. Corcoran joined.

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Gould for the paper, which will be
printed in the Essex Naturalist.

British Science Guild. — Prof. Meldola called attention to the meeting to be
held on Monday next at the Mansion House, under the chairmanship of the
Lord Mayor, for the establishment of what bids fair to be a very important body
— the British Science Guild — and commended this departure to the members and.
to all interested in science and education in the county.

THE 242nd ORDINARY MEETING.
Saturday, November 25///, 1905.
This meeting was held in the Technical Institute, Stratford, at half-past six,
Mr. Miller Christy, F L.S., President, in the chair.

New Member. — Mr. George Ellis, of 59, Woodlands Road, Ilford, was
elected a member.

British Science Guild.— The President alluded to the circular setting out
the aims of the British Science Guild, which has been sent out to all members.
The Guild had been successfully inaugurated at a meeting held in the Mansion
House on October 30th. The President, in commending the Guild to the
support of all wishful for the progress and diffusion of science in Britain, said that
he was informed by Professor Meldola that the Essex Field Club was the first
local society which had taken an active interest in the Guild by circulating the
prospectuses in the way indicated.

Straw-Plaiting Mill. — A stiaw-plaiting mill from Essex was exhibited
which had been presented to the Club by Mr. Bryan Corcoran. Subsequently to
the making of the mill it had been fitted with a hopper, so as to be used as a mill
for crushing hemp-seed for feeding birds.

Rare Essex Birds.— Mr. Miller Christy presented a specimen of the Little
Auk [Mergulus alle) shot at Lindsell Hall, near Dunmow, about 1 871, and a
Golden Oriole (? female or young) shot at the same place on May 22nd, 1883.
Both these birds are recorded in Christy's Birds of Essex.

Mammals recently acquired for the Museum.— The Secretary exhibited
some remarkable animals recently purchased for the Mammalian collection.
These included a wild Albino Rabbit, cream-coloured and puce-coloured
varieties of the common Mole, the Pigmy Shrew (Sorex mi nut us), and a
specimen of the new British Vole, Microtus oicadensis, from the Orkney
Islands.

Original Drawings for Godman's Norman Architecture of Essex. —
Mr. Avery exhibited the oiiginal drawings made for this work which he had

164 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. REPORTS OF MEETINGS.

recently acquired, and he and Mr. Christy made some remarks on the same.
Thanks were accorded to the donors and exhibitors.

Papers read. — Mr. F. W. Rudler read his report as Club's Delegate at
the meetings ot the Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association
held in London on October 30th and 31st last.

A discussion ensued on some points in ^M r. Rudler's report, particularly as
to the preservation of wild flowers, started by Prof. Meldola, and in which the
J 'resilient, Mr. Wilson, Mr. W. Cole, and others part.

A cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Rudler for representing the Club
as Delegate at the Conference and for his report {ante pp. 152 — 54).

Lecture. — Mr. F. Martin-Duncan then delivered a lecture entitled "In
Demeter's Garden; or the Romance ot Plant-life." The lecture was fully
illustrated by lantern-slides from the lecturer's own photographs.

A discussion was carried on by the President, Prof. Meldola, Mr. Barnard,
and Mr. F. W. Elliott. The Lecturer described the methods employed
in taking the instantaneous photographs he had shown.

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Duncan, and the meeting ended.

THE 243rd ORDINARY MEETING.

Saturday, January 2~th, 1906.

The third meeting of the Winter Session was held as usual, the President in
the chair.

New Member.— Mr. Ellis Edwards, of Graham House, Cephas Street,
Mile End. £,, was elected a member.

Photographs taken at Meetings of the Club. — Prof. Meldola pre-
sented some photographs taken in former years in connection with the Club's
meetings and explorations. He added, as a little personal matter, that one picture
recorded the first meeting of himself and the Hon. Secretary in Epping Forest,
many years before the foundation of the Club,

Flint Implements and Fossils from Clacton. — The Secretary
exhibited a small collection of flint implements and fossil bones, collected and
presented to the Club by Master Randall, a pupil of Clacton College. These
bones had been identified by Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S. The Secretary
mentioned that Mr. Newton had very kindly examined the whole of the
Pleistocene and other fossil bones in the Museum. The Club was much indebted
to him for this service.

Honey Buzzard from Kelvedon. — The Secretary also exhibited a Honey
Buzzard from Kelvedon, Essex, which had been purchased from Mr.
Ambrose. Also several very interesting examples of Mimicry and Protective
Resemblance which had been recently acquired for the Museum.

Professor Meldola, Mr. W. H. Dalton, F.G.S., Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S. ,
Mr. F. W. Reader, and the President, spoke anent the various exhibits, and
thanks were passed to the donors.

Lecture. — Professor Meldola having taken the chair, Mr. Christy delivered a
lecture on "Methods of Fire-making, Ancient and Modern." The lecturer
treated of the fire-drill, fire-saw, fire-plough, flint-and -steel, " instantaneous
lights," the modern friction -match, &c,

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS. 165

A very large number of specimens were shown by Mr, E. Bidwell, who
possesses the finest collection, probably, of objects illustrating the history of fire-
making appliances in existence. The lecturer also exhibited some specimens, and
others were shown by the Secretary, brought from the Club's Museum. The
lecture was also further illustrated by a series of slides shown by the electric
lantern.

The Lecturer was much applauded by the large meeting, and afterwards a<
discussion on special points was carried on by Professor Meldola, Mr. W. H.
Dalton, Mr. Walter Crouch, Mr T. W. Reader, Mr. W. M. Webb, Mr.
Bidwell, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Mr. Christy, and others. And a very cordial vote of
thanks to the President for his lecture was passed by acclamation.

THE 244th ORDINARY MEETING.

Saturday, February 24.TH, 1906.

The fourth meeting of the Winter Session was held in the Technical Institute-
as usual, at 6.30 o'clock, the President, Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., in the
chair.

New Members. — Mr. Frederick W. Evens, 27, Stanley Gardens, Hamp-
stead, N. IV. ; Mr. Percy G. Thompson, Dei went House, High Road, Loughton ;
and Mr. S. Hazzledene Warren, F.G.S., Sherwood, Loughton, were elected.

Dipteron Injurious to Daffodils. — Mr. Chittenden exhibited specimens of
the fly, Merodon equestris, and made some remarks upon the same, which will
be embodied in a "Note." Mr- W. Cole pointed out the remarkable
" beedike " appearance of the fly, as suggesting a case of mimicry.

.Flint Implements from Braintree and Mammalian Bones from
Clacton — The Rev. J. W, Kenworthy sent for exhibition a small collection of
flint implements from Braintree, including three which he was inclined to think
were earlier than the usual Thames and Ouse well-formed implements Also a
small lot of Mammalian bones from the submerged forest at Clacton.

Mr. Whitaker, F.RS-, pointed out that the beds at Clacton were quite
distinct from those known to Geologists as " Forest Beds," (See Geol. Mag.,
Vol. v., p. 214, and Geol. and Arch of Walton Naze and Clacton. by H. Stopes,
F.G.S., and W- H. Dalton, F.G.S.).

Hairy-armed Bat in Essex, — Mr. Cole exhibited a specimen of Vesperugo
leisleri, which had been detected amongst skins of bats, presented by Mr.
Reginald Christy. See " Notes."

Skomer Vole. — Mr. Cole also exibited a skin of this vole (JLicrolus
orcadensis), which had been given tc him by the describer, Mr. J. G. Millais,
F.Z.S.

The President made some remarks upon the exhibits, and referred to the
doubtful position of the Skomer Vole as a distinct species.

Mr. W. M. Webb, F.L.S., however, said that he had had an opportunity of
observing the Skomer Vole in captivity, and from its general appearance and
habits he was disposed to consider it entitled to rank as a species.

On the motion of the President cordial votes of thanks were accorded to the
exhibitors.

1 66 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS.

Papers Read. — Mr. F. J. Chittenden read a paper on " The Mosses of
Essex: a Contribution to the Flora of the County." Mr, Chittenden had
undertaken to examine the collections of Mosses in the possession of the Club, and
to collate them with other records from the County, and the present paper was
the result of his labours. He had also very kindly promised to arrange the
collections of mosses in the Museum, and he exhibited some sheets for the
herbarium already completed.

The President warmly thanked Mr. Chittenden in the name of the Club for an
excellent piece of work.

Remarks on the paper (which will appear in the Essex Naturalist) were
made by Mr. Paulson, Mr. Barnard, and Mr. J. Wilson, and Mr. Chittenden
replied.

Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S., then read a paper entitled " Mysterious
Subsidence at Mucking, Essex, and Miscellaneous Denehole Notes, 1906."

Mr, W. Whitaker, F.R.S, made some remarks on points in the paper, and a
heart v vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Holmes.

THE 26th ANNUAL MEETING AND SPECIAL MEETING.

Saturday, April jth, 1906.
These meetings were held at the Municipal Technical Institute, Stratford, at
4.30 p.m., Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., President, in the chair.

Minutes. — The minutes of the 25th Annual Meeting, held on April 8th,
1905, and printed in the Essex Naturalist, vol. xiv., pp. 68-9, were read and
confirmed.

Annual Report of Council. — This is printed in the Year Book for
1906-7, at pp. 17-18.

Financial Statement.— Mr. Howard, the Hon. Treasurer, presented the
Annual Statement, which is also printed in the Year Book, p. 19.

On the motion of Prof. Meldola, seconded by Mr. Spiller and Mr. Walter
•Crouch, the report and statement were adopted.

Tea Fund. — The Secretary presented the account of the Tea Fund for the
Session 1905-6.

Members of Council and Officers Elected. — At the meeting on February
24th last, the following Members retired from the Council : — Messrs. Shen-
stone. Spiller, Varley, McLachlan, Elliott, and Dr. Mason ; and the following
were nominated as new Members of the Council : —Messrs. Bryan Corcoran,
Hugh McLachlan, A.K.I.B.A., D. J. Scourfield, F.R.M.S., J.C. Shenstone
F.L.S., John Spiller, F.I.C., F.C.S., and F. H. Varley, F.R.A.S. As officers
for 1906, the following were nominated : — President, Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S. ;
T/easurer, Mr. David Howard, J. P., F.C.S., Pies. I.C. ; Hon. Secretaries, Mr.
W.Cole and Mr. B. G. Cole; Libtarian, Mr. Thomas W. Reader, F.G.S- ;
Auditors, Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.3., and Mr. J. D. Cooper. No other
Members having been proposed, the above-named stood elected as Members of
the Council and Officers for 1906, and were so declared by the Chairman.

The President intimated that he would reserve his Address until the evening
meeting.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS. 167

SPECIAL MEETING.

The meeting was then declared a Special one (in accordance with the intimation
sent to members by circular) for the consideration of the following alteration
IN THE rules, proposed by the Council : —

In Rule X , after the words, " fanuary in each year" insert the
following : —

" Provided, nevertheless, that any two or more members of the same family,
who reside in the same house, and are willing to receive between them onlv one
copy of the Club's Publications, may become Ordinary Members of the Club,
and shall enjoy all the privileges of Membership (except that they shall receive
between them only one copy of the Club's Publications, as above) in return for
the usual Entrance Fee in respect of each Member (in the case of new Members),
and a joint Annual Subscription of One Guinea for the first two Members and
Six Shillings annually for each additional Member."

The President explained the reasons which had led the Council to recommend
this alteration, and proposed it on behalf of the Council. The motion was
seconded by Professor Meldola, F.R.S , and Mr. Howard, and carried
unanimously.

Thanks to the President, the Council, and Officers.— Prof. Meldola
proposed that the cordial thanks of the Club should be accorded to Mr. Christy
for his services as President during the year. He said that all members of the
■Club who attended any of the meetings would heartily concur in his appreciation
of the care the President had given to its affairs, and the business ability he had
•exercised as its head.

Mr. W. M. Webb seconded the motion most heartily r and proposed that the
vote should include all the officers and members of the Council who had devoted
so much care and attention to the affairs of the Club.

Prof. Meldola agreed to this, and the vote was carried by acclamation.

The President returned thanks on his own behalf and on behalf of his
colleagues on the Council and the Officers.

The meeting then adjourned until the evening.

THE 245th ORDINARY MEETING.

Saturday, April jth, 1906.

This meeting was held at the Technical Institute, Stratford, at half-past six,
Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., President, in the chair.

New Members. — Mr. Herbert O. Jacobs, 133, Osborne Road, Forest
Gate, and Mr. Herbert E. Rains, 5, Sackville Gardens, Ilford, were elected
members.

Black Rat in Essex. — Mr. W. Cole exhibited two specimens of Mus rattus
which had been sent to him by Mr. Pettitt, the taxidermist, from " a locality in
Essex." The records of the capture of this species in the county were very few,
with the exception of specimens from the docks on the Thames, where sometimes
Black- Rats, which were presumably escapes from foreign-going ships, were
caught.

Mr. Christy remarked that the specimens exhibited seemed to his eyes hardly
typical, and he suggested that they might be hybrids between the true M. rattus
and the Brown Rat {Mus decumanus).

l68 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. — REPORTS OF MEETINGS.

De Wintor.'s Mouse at Lexden. — Mr. Cole also exhibited two specimens-
of the Yellow-necked Mouse {Mus sylvaticus-wintoni) from Lexden, near Col-
chester.

Essex Birds. —Mr. Cole also exhibited (i) the Red-throated Diver (Colymbus
septentriohaVis) ; (2) the Black-headed Gull [Larus ridibundus) ; and (3) the
Guillemot {Lomvia t roils), all from the estuary of the Thames, off Southend,
These were all presented in the flesh to the Museum by Mr. Sherrin. of Southend.

Deep Boring at Ilford Gas Company's Works. — Mr. Walter Crouch,
F.Z.S., detailed some observations made at this boring. The notes were of a
preliminary nature, but Mr. Crouch promised more definite information later.

A discussion took place in which the President, Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.,
Professor Meldola, F.R.S., Mr. John Spiller, F.I.C., Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S.,
Mr. Reader and others took part, and Mr. Crouch replied.

Large Bone of a Whale at Mountnessing, Essex. — Mr. Christy
exhibited, by the aid of the lantern, a photograph of a large bone which had for
many years reclined beside the font in Mountnessing Church. He had submitted
the photograph aud a description of the bone to Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S. ,
who was present. It had been put down in the Guide-books as an Elephant's or
Mammoth's bone, but Mr. Newton was of opinion that it had belonged to a
Whale — probably the rib of a Sperm Whale (Physeter) or to a Rorqual
(Balcznoptera), perhaps brought as an offering from some whaling ship in the
Thames. 1

Bone " Needle." — Mr. H. Mothersole exhibited acurious object resembling
a bone '• needle," which had been found in an excavation at Chelmsford. Mr.
F. W. Reader made some remarks on this specimen, but these are reserved
until a figure and further details can be given.

Remarks by the President, and Paper on Salt-making in Essex. —
Before reading his paper the President made a few general observations on the
work of the Club. Pie considered that they continued fully to justify their
existence as a county society ; the work done, and progress made during the past
year had been very considerable. The Essex Museum of Natural History was
developing rapidly, and he particularly called attention to the growing collection
of British Mammals, which when completed, would be a very remarkable feature,
and one indeed almost unique among the local museums of this country.
Under Mr. T. W. Reader's skilful and persevering efforts our library is being
rapidly put into order, and promises to become of considerable importance as a
collection of books relating to our special subjects.

The papers and lectures have been as numernus as usual, and although some
of them have been of a general nature, there is no fear of the supply of original
papers relating to the natural history and archaeology of Essex falling short.

One very important matter which is now engaging the attention of friends of
the Club is the necessity of gaining new members. To our great regret many
old and esteemed members have died within the last few years, and it is a prime
necessity that their vacant places should be filled up by persons taking an equally
warm interest in the Society. It is to be hoped that the recently-established
Year Book, although a somewhat costly item, will aid in attracting members,

1 In the Strand Magazine for May, 1906. is a photograph of a similar rib, still to be seen
in St. Mary's Redcliffe Church. Bristol. Legend has it that this is a rib of the celebrated
Dun Cow, which supplied all the parish with her milk in the days long ago.

& Local Publications &

BY

Benham 6 Co., 24, High Street, Colchester.

THE ESSEX REVIEW. Published Quarterly. Edited by Edward
A. Fitch and Miss C. Fell Smith. Demy 8vo. 64 pages, is. 6d.
post free. A fully illustrated Quarterly Review of all that is of per-
manent interest in Essex. Established 1892. Back Volumes may be had
bound in cloth, price 7s. 6d. each, excepting the earlier volumes, which
are 21s. each.

Annual subscription, if paid in advance, 5s., including free delivery.
" The best of the county magazines."

THE RED PAPER BOOK OF COLCHESTER. Transciibed
and Translated by \V. Gurney Benham. Crown 4to. Fully Indexed.
A volume crowded with local information hitherto unpublished. 25s. nett.

GUIDE TO COLCHESTER. By W. Gurney Benham. Crown 8vo.
140 pp. Over 100 illustrations. 6d. ; by post 8d.

COLCHESTER DIRECTORY AND ALMANAC, id. ; by post 3d.

Cloth 6d. ; by post 8d.
COLCHESTER OYSTER FEAST. Its History and Toast Lists.

Profusely illustrated. An amusing and unique volume. Demy 4to.

5s. nett. By post 5s. 4<1.
ESSEX BALLADS, and other Poems. By Chakles E. Benham.

Third Edition. Prefatory note by the Right Hon. the Countess of

Warwick, is. 6d. ; by post, is. 8d.
WILLIAM GILBERT, of COLCHESTER. A sketch of his Magnetic

Philosophy. By ('has. E. Benham. 2s. nett. Post free 2S. 2d.
ANCIENT TOKENS of COLCHESTER. By Ernest N. Mason.

Fully illustrated descriptive, and historical account of the tokens issued in

Colchester in the 17th and 181I1 centuries. 5s. nett. By post 5s. 2d
GUIDE TO COLCHESTER CASTLE. By Charles E. Benham,

8 illustrations'. Demy 8vo., 6d. ; by post, ;d.
COLCHESTER NEW TOWN HALL. By Wilson Marriage

and W. Gurney Benham. Fully Illustrated. Demy 4to. Second

edition. 1900. 2s.; by post, 2s. 3d.
COLCHESTER TOWN HALL Illustrated. Fcap, 8vo. 32 pages,

3d. ; by post 3^1.
OLD COLCHESTER. A few chapters for young Colchester. By

Charles E. Benham. Illustrated, is.; by post, is. 3d.
AMONG THE TOMBS OF COLCHESTER. Full account of

local monuments, tablets, epitaphs, &c. 6d. ; by post, ;d.
ANCIENT LEGENDS CONNECTED WITH THE ARMS OF

COLCHESTER. By W. Gurney Benham. Illustrated explanation

of the Arms, with the Stoiies of St. Helen and King Coel. Demy 8vo.

3d. ; by post, 4d.
TWO LEGENDS OF COLCHESTER. By Alfred P. Wire.

Illustrated by W. Gurney Benham. Demy 8vo. 3d. ; by post, 3 x d.
OLD KING COEL. By Chari.es E. Benham. Fcap. 8vo. Price 2d. ;

by post, }d.
THE TENDRING HUNDRED IN THE OLDEN TIME.

By ]. Yei.loi.y Watson, F.G.S., J. P. 5s. ; by post, 5s. 4d.
NOTES on the GEOLOGY and ARCHEOLOGY of WALTON

CLACTON and DISTRICT. By H. Stopes, F.G.S., and W. H.

Dalton, F.G.S., 6il. ; by post, yd
MALDON. By Edward A. Fitch, ex-Mayor of Maldon. Illustrated.

1888. Fcap. 8vo. Paper cover. Price 3d. ; by post, 3|d.
KING COEL POSTCARDS. Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, 6d.
THE ESSEX LABOURER, DRAWN FROM LIFE. By W. G. B

Illustrations. 4to., 6d. ; bv post 6|.
COLCHESTER WORTHIES "POSTCARDS. Gilberd, Harsnett,

Audley, and Grimston Series by Hervey Elwes. In colours, id.

THE BRITISH WOODLICE

BEING

A MONOGRAPH OF THE TERRESTRIAL
ISOPOD CRUSTACEA OF THE BRITISH ISLES,

BY

Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S.,

Charles Sillem,

With 25 plates and 59 figures in the text.

TALL DEMY 8vo., 6s. nett.

" This small volume supplies one of the desiderata to all Naturalists, viz. a
book of reference to a small, and in a general significance, little-studied group of
animals. These terrestrial Isopod Crustacea, represented in Britain, according
to our authors by twenty- five species are each beautifully illustrated on separate
plates, which renders their identification a matter of little difficulty. Of these
no fewer than seventeen have been found in the County of Essex, where the
Authors investigations have been principally made. This Monograph
originally appeared in the " Essex Naturalist " and is a further example of
the great stimulus given to all naturalistic studies, we will not say local, but
County studies, and we might well give a larger definition, by the foundation of
the Essex Field Club. This publication is not intended to be the last word on
the subject, but it certainly is the best to work with, and should be largely used
in other counties than Essex. How many local societies can give offhand the
number of species of Woodlice which occur in the area of their investigations ? ' r
Zoologist, May 15///, 1906.

DUCKWORTH and COMPANY., 3, HENRIETTA
STREET, LONDON, W.C.

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY.
Price to Non-Members, 5s. per part, post free.

Part YI., Vol. XIY] [JULY, 1906.

The

Essex Naturalist:

BEING THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ESSEX FIELD CLUB

EDITED BY

WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Honorary Secretary and Curator.

C£<mtimt0.

PAGE

The Essex Field Club: Reports of Meetings {concluded) .. 169

Exploration of Some "Red-Hills " in Essex, with remarks upon
the objects found.— By William Cole, F.L.S., F.E.S. [With
Plates xxviii. and xxix. and other illustrations) ... . . 17°

Straw Plaiting.— A lost Essex industry. By Chalkley Gould,

F.S.A. (With illustrations) . . .. .. .. 184

Exploration of the Red-Hills. {Preliminary Announcement) . . 192

The Authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinions contained in
their respective papers.

PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX.

Entered Stationers' Hall.] [Published July, 1906.

Editorial communications to W. Cole, " Springfield," Buckhurst Hill, Essex,
and Advertisements to Messrs. Benham and Co., Printers, Colchester.

Che photograghic ar\d pictorial Sumy
and Record oj Essex.

Members and others are referred to the Year-Book for
particulars of this organization, which is a permanent Com-
mittee of the Essex Field Club.

The assistance of all interested in Essex is solicited for this
work, which is not only very interesting in itself, but as years
go on will become of considerable historical and scientific
importance.

The Hon. Secretary, Mr. Victor Taylor, Hurstleigh, Buckhurst
Hill, Essex, will gladly correspond on the matter, and will give
full information on the objects and work of the Survey.

Zhe jfauna anb tflora of JEsser,

As Illustrated in the
Essex Museum of Natural History.

I need not point out to my fellow Members and friends the
great difficulty often experienced in obtaining authentic specimens
from a limited district. I should highly esteem any aid that
County and London Collectors could afford. Localised
specimens of Essex Birds, Fish and Mammals, Insects of all
orders, Land and Freshwater and Marine Shells, Plants, etc., if
in good condition, will be of the greatest assistance, and donors
will have the satisfaction of knowing that their specimens will
be properly preserved, and will be available for study in the future.

Birds, Fish and Mammals in the flesh may be forwarded
direct to the Taxidermists, Messrs. Sherrin Bros., 38, Fielding
Road, Chiswick, London, W. A post card should precede the
specimens. Carriage may be charged forward.

William Cole,

Hon. Secretary and Curator.
Essex Museum of Nat. Hist.,
Romford Road,

Stratford, Essex.

THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. REPORTS OF MEETINGS. 169

and, as previously announced, it is now intended to make an organised effort to
increase our membership roll. As a small matter, the President suggested that
new members should be formally introduced at the first meeting attended, so
that the officers and their fellow members might welcome them into the ranks.

Mr. Christy also considered that occasional Ordinary Meetings held in various
parts of the county would tend to make the Club better known and appreciated.

The President then read his paper on " Salt-making in Essex, Ancient and
Modern." The paper was illustrated by lantern-slides, and by specimens of
the crystals and finished product made at the Maldon Salt Works, the only
11 Salt-pan " now remaining in the county.

A discussion was carried on by Prof. Meldola, F.R.S., Mr. J. Spiller,
F.C.S., Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., and the President.

Vote of thanks to the President. — At the suggestion of Prof. Meldola.
seconded by Mr. Spiller, a very cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr.
Christy for his services as President during the past year, and also for the very
interesting paper read that evening.

Mr. Christy acknowledged the vote of thanks.

" Neolithic Man in Epping Forest," — A paper under this title, by
Messrs. F. W. and H. Campion, was read for the authors by the Hon.
Secretary.

Considerable discussion took place anent the evidence brought forward in
the paper, and on the specimens exhibited in illustration thereof. The
President suggested to the authors the desirability of their demonstrating on the
spot the sites and specimens upon which the paper was founded. But Messrs.
Campion appeared to be unwilling to do this.

EXPLORATION OF SOME " RED-HILLS " IN
ESSEX, WITH REMARKS UPON THE
OBJECTS FOUND.

By WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S.

( With Plates x.xviii. and xxix. and other Illustrations')

[Read at Spains Halt, July 2W1, 1906.]

I HAVE been recently occupied in examining and re-arrang-
ing in the Museum the specimens from the Red-hills,
obtained during several years' attention paid by myself and my
brothers to the subject, and it seems well to place on permanent
record the results of our work and observations so far obtained,
small though they may be. The main facts were given in
spoken communications to the Club, at a meeting held in
Colchester, March 30th, 1889 (Essex Naturalist, iii., pp.
163-4), and again at a meeting held at Virley on April 13th,
1903 (E.N., xiii., 243), but the full details of these communica-
tions have not been hitherto published.

My practical experiences of Red-hills yielding any special
results are mainly confined to one at Burnham and several in
Mersea.

The exploration at Burnham was made as long ago as 1888,
and was rendered possible by the great courtesy and hospitality
of our late member, Mr. John Rogers, and of our Vice-President,
Mr. E. A. Fitch, F.L.S.

This particular Red-hill is at Little West Wick, Burnham
Marshes (called " Lower Westwick '' on the one-inch Geological
Survey Map). 1 It is situate immediately to the S.E. of the
cottage, shown in H. A. Cole's drawing (" Exploring the Red
Hill, Burnham, Essex," Plate xxviii.), which probably stands on
part, and the posts of an old ox-house were still standing about
the centre of the hill. The hill is two miles east of Burnham
Church, and two miles south-east of Southminster Church,
5^ miles west of the sea-wall, and 1^ miles north of the wall on
the River Crouch. The distance from the sea and river is
noteworthy.

The cuttings were made on the 20th and 21st of September,
1888. The working party consisted of Mr. Fitch, Mr. H. C.
Snell, Messrs. W., B. G., and H. A. Cole, while Mr. Rogers
kindly allowed us the assistance of David Barber, one of his men,

1 Sheet (Esses) lxiii south-east of the 1S97 six-inch Survey, and No. 245 Sheet 63— 15 of
the 25-inch Ordnance Survey.

EXPLORATION OF SOME " RED-HILLS IN ESSEX, 171

and another. Barber had known the Red-hills about 28 years.
He told us that it was then about half an acre in extent, and
that hundreds of loads of soil had been taken away. He also
said that in making the foundations for the shed " a number of
coins were found, one silver, and quantities of pot, some of them
whole, and pieces of bone." A carpenter named Baker, of
Southminster, found the silver coin. Of course, I give these
particulars wholly on hearsay.

Judging from what we saw, and were told, the red-hill had
"been much interfered with, and very great quantities of the
burnt rubble taken away. It was consequently very shallow,
and only one of our cuttings afforded anything like a good
section. We made four trenches : —

No. 1 w r as 16ft. long and 2ft. Sin. wide. We dug down to
the apparently undisturbed clay (? London Clay) first finding
.a thin layer of sand at a depth of about 2ft. 6in. The reddish
.burnt rubble appeared to be very uniform throughout.

No. 2 trench was 20ft. long and 2ft. 6in. wide. The sur-
face soil was thick, about 2oin., and much may have been cast
over the " hill." Then came 3m. of burnt red clay and sand ;
•iin. charcoal ; 2in. burnt clay ; another layer of charcoal, very
thin ; then 2in. burnt clay, and finally about ioin. sand over the
•clay bottom.

In No. 3 we went down about 2oin. finding red-earth below,
h\it we could not get a section to the bottom because a burrow
had been cut through the part years ago, apparently as a shelter
for hares.

Our last trench (No. 4.) was icft. long, 2ft. 6in. wide, and
about iSin. down to the undisturbed clay. The soil here, after
the superficial surface layer, was of the red burnt-earth kind,
which apparently had been sifted ; it was quite fine in grain, and
•contained little or no pottery.

It will be gathered from the above that the " red-earth "
formed by far the greater part of the " hill." This substance
was quite like the burnt clay now-a-days prepared for making
paths and roads during suburban building operations.
Interspersed with this burnt rubble, in all the cuttings
excepting No. 4, were vast numbers of fragments, mostly quite
small, of a very coarse and thick pottery, presumably made
from the same kind of clay (see specimen drawn at A, Fig. 1).

172

WITH REMARKS UPON THE OBJECTS FOUND.

EXPLORATION OF SOME " RED-HILLS " IN ESSEX, I 73

These thick pieces are apparently portions of large vessels, some
at least cylindrical in form, and as much as twenty inches in
diameter, with the ware an inch or an inch and a-half in sub-
stance. 2 The larger fragments found were very soft and fragile
whilst moist, and readily broke up on attempted removal from
the matrix. There is an appearance on some pieces of careful
smoothing ot the clay on the inner side, but we saw no
indications of glazing on the Burnham specimens.

These coarse pot-shards constituted in some places quite
one-fourth of the whole mass of rubble excavated.

We often found portions of curious objects, which we
termed " T-pieces " ; they were largely fragmentary, but one of
the most perfect found at Burnham is shown at B, Fig. i. The
*• shaft " had apparently been much longer, but had been broken
off.

Wedge-shaped bricks of the same kind of clay also occurred
not uncommonly ; two are figured at C and D, Fig. i.

A small number of fragments of a harder and better kind of
pottery were picked out of the mass of debris ; it is of the kind
commonly called Romano-British. Specimens from the Bower
Hall Farm, Red Hill, East Mersea, are pictured in Fig. 3, post.
They formed a very small percentage of the rude pottery
fragments. Some of it is apparently wheel-turned.

Two small fragments of Samian ware occurred at Burnham ;
we found no trace of it in any other Red-hill. At the
time we considered them accidental, and fancied that they might
have been carried down from the surface by the burrowing of
rabbits, or by rain-wash.

Our next experiences of Red-hills explored in any careful
way, were during our summer vacations in Mersea. One very
considerable "hill" was found on Bower Hall Farm, East
Mersea. This mound is situate on the saltings bordering the
Pyefleet Channel, outside the sea-wall (it is marked on the 6in.
•Ordnance Map, "Sheet 47, N.W. East Meysea,'' very near the
B.M., 13-5.). The Red-hill is partly cut through by the Pyefleet,
so causing a natural section, which exhibits the characteristic
features of such remains excellently — the usual pottery is seen
sticking out from the exposed burnt earth. Plate xxix.

2 I am much indebted to Mr. Henry Whitehead, the Assistant in the Museum, for
making measurements and arranging the specimens for exhibition.

174 W ITH REMARKS UPON THE OBJECTS FOUND.

Fig. 2.— Objects Found in Red-Hills at Bower Hall Farm

East Mersea (E F G), one (H) at Peldon (Mr. Storks), and.

Modern Wedge of Clay (I) from Doulton's Pottery Works..

{One-half natural size.)

EXPLORATION OF SOME " RED-HILLS IN ESSEX,

17

is from a drawing made from the point of view of a boat in the
channel at low water, by H. A. Cole, in August, 1896.

The excavations were made (by the kind permission of Mrs.
Harvey, the owner) on two days in August, 1892, and the
working party comprised my brothers, B. G. and H. A. Cole,
Mr. Charles Wilson, and myself. We were assisted in the
digging by Mr. David King, the well-known postman of the
island. A very long cut, 2ft. 6in. wide, was made, extending in
a westerly direction from the extreme outer margin of the " hill "
to the centre. As far as we could judge we went down to the
solid clay, below the alluvium, as at Burnham. After removal
of the purely surface soil, the whole heap was found to consist
of burnt rubble with the usual large intermixture of the rude

FIG. 3. — POTTERY FRAGMENTS (ROMANO-BRITISH) FROM RED-HILL ON
BOWER HALL FARM, EAST MERSEA.

thick pottery. There was no evidence of stratification ; the soil
worked evenly and homogeneously from top to bottom. We
were at once struck with similarity between the objects found
here and at Burnham. There were the " T-pieces," the wedges
(F, and G., Fig. 2), and the very small proportion of hard ware
(shown at Fig. 3, J. to M.) which appears to be like the other
examples, Romano-British. At Fig. 2, the objects F. and G.
are from this Red-hill. The object E is like the «* T-pieces" in
material and shaft, but it has a circular boss or foot, as shown.
This piece was found by Mr. G. E. Vaughan several years
after the date of our exploration, at the natural section formed
by the Pyefleet, at low water, washed out of the clay, with

176

WITH REMARKS UPON THE OBJECTS FOUND.

it we collected an abundance of fragments of the rough pottery,
and a few pieces of hard ware.

On reviewing the results of the work at Bower Hall Farm
we were again impressed by the very large proportion of the
rough coarse ware, sometimes occurring in quite large pieces,
which, owing to their soft nature and saturation with moisture,
were very fragile. The " T-pieces " and wedges were compara-
tively rare, as was also the Romano-British pot-shards — in fact,
we kept all that were found. No Samian ware was observed,
nor have we found worked flints in any of our cuttings.

During the same year we dug into a Red-hill situate on the

" Grassy-Marsh " (inside the sea
wall) on Ivy House Farm, East
Mersea, by kind permission of Mr.
Cant, the tenant. This is on the
piece of marsh near East Mersea
Stone (6in. Ordnance Sheet 47,
N.E.), less than a quarter of a mile
from the water. The ; ' hill " was
roughly oval, about 450 feet in
circumference. The working party
was the same, with the kind assist-
ance of Mr. R. Wood, the foreman
of the farm. The results of the
work were almost identical with our
experiences at Bower Hall Farm.
The same kind of burnt earth, the
piece of pottery, from a red- rough pottery, T-and wedge-shaped

HILL AT IVY HOUSE FARM, EAST • , , . , ,.

mersea (restored). pieces, but the pottery was more

fragmentary and decayed. Here,
as in other hills, were found roughly shaped masses of
burnt clay, which could hardly be called pottery ; one
piece kept from the '• Grassy Marsh " hill is quite i\ inches
thick. One notable find was a piece of clay similar to the
shaft of a '• T-piece,"' but which had apparently been made with
a double prong at the end (see the restoration at Fig. 4). This
object is commented upon below. It may be noted that two of
the pieces of thick rough potcery from this spot have a yellow
glaze ; we have found no other examples of this. (See post.)

FIG 4. — DOUBLE PRONG-SHAPED

EXPLORATION OF SOME " RED-HILLS " IN ESSEX. 177

We also cut into the remains of a Red-hill at Fen Farm (on
the same map) inside the sea-wall, facing Mersea flats. Red
earth and rough pottery were found, but little else. It appeared
to have been very much disturbed, and Mr. Griggs, the farmer,
said that many hundreds of loads of the burnt earth from it had
been spread over the fields. And we examined (but only
superficially) the site of a very extensive " hill " on Reeves Hall
Farm. This had been ploughed over, making the soil of the
field quite ruddy ; fragments of the characteristic pottery could
be found scattered over the whole field.

In 1903 our attention was called by Mr. George Cross to a
Red-hill, or rather ridge, on his farm, Lee Wick, St. Osyth.
His orchard covers part of it, and it runs N. and S. for a long
way into the fields, which are reddened with the burnt clay. A
deep trench dug at one side of the orchard gave section of
the red earth, with the familiar kinds of rough pottery, T-pieces
and wedges. Only two or three pieces of Romano-British
pottery were found.

We know of a great many Red-hills in the Mersea, Peldon,
and adjoining districts, but I have noticed those only which we
have carefully examined.

The original description of our Essex Red-hills, from which
-all later accounts have been compiled, is that by the late Henry
Stopes, F.G.S., in the Essex Naturalist for 1887 (Vol. i.,
pp. 96-105) under the title of " The Salting Mounds of Essex."
In this paper, Mr. Stopes gives details of the only practical
exploration (at Peldon) of Red-hills previous to our investi-
gations described above. It is quite unnecessary to enter here
into any general account of the Red-hills, inasmuch as Mr.
Stopes has done this admirably, and all enquirers are referred to
his paper. Mr. Stopes' descriptions are quite in agreement with
our own observations, and he found many of the same kind of
objects, although he makes no mention of the " T-shaped "
pieces of clay. 3 He concluded, as we did, that the " hills " went
down to the undisturbed clay (? London Clay), and he noticed
the apparently uniform character of the burnt earth. In the
paper (at p. 103) is a map showing the distribution of the then

3 Some of Mr. Stopes' specimens are in the Essex Museum, having formed part of Mr
Dalton's geological collections.

I78 WITH REMARKS UPON THE OBJECTS FOUND.

known mounds in the Wigborough and Mersea districts, prepared
by Mr. W. H. Dalton, F.G.S. The sites are plotted on the
1 -inch map, and are consequently only approximations to the
true positions.

In the remarks that follow, I make no pretension to putting
forth a complete and permanent theory of the origin and use of
the Red-hills. I simply wish to make a few suggestions, which
may be taken as " working hypotheses " in guiding the investi-
gations of future explorers.

In any discussion of the subject the following data should be
kept in mind : —

I. The distribution of the Red-hills on the saltings and marshes, above
high-water mark, and generally fairly close to existing salt creeks and estuaries.
None are found inland.

II. The great number of " hills " at present known. It is probable that
Mr. Dalton. Dr. Laver, and myself could plot down 200 on the Essex map.

III. The large size of many of them. They vary in extent from half-an-acre
to about 25 acres, and as the burnt earth is often several feet thick, the total
quantity must be prodigious. One near Peldon, covering 10 acres, Mr. Stopes
estimated to contain some ico.000 tons of red-earth.

IV. The apparent homogeneity of the burnt earth, and the close corres-
pondence of structure and contents of one " hill " with another.

V. The numerical proportions of the fragments of pottery. The vast
number of shards were of the coarse, thick pottery, often so plentiful as to form,
quite one-fourth of the whole mass of burnt stuff. The paucity of the wedges
and T-shaped pieces, and the comparatively small number of fragments of the
finer ware.

Whilst wotking at the hills, the conclusion irresistibly forced
itself upon us that we had there the debris of some primitive kind
of pottery-making industry, and I put forward that hypothesis
when relating the results of the Burnham exploration at the
meeting of the Club at Colchester in March, 1S89 (Essex Nat.,
hi., 163-4), an d again at the meeting at Virley on April 13th,
1903 (Essex Nat., Vol. xiii., pp. 244-5). On consultation with an.
old potter employed at the Potteries in Honey Lane, Waltham
Abbey, he pointed out the similarity of the fragments of coarse
pottery to the ware of the great seggars used to protect pots
during firing. He also recognised the T-pieces as suggesting,
the rudely moulded rods or '' spacers '' of clay used to keep the
pots expanded whilst being baked. The little " bricks " are
like the wedges still used in potteries to keep the vessels upright

EXPLORATION OF SOME " RED-HILLS IN ESSEX.

17^

and distinct from each other ; one of two modern specimens from
Doul ton's factory, kindly presented by Mr. F. W. Reader, is
figured (Fig. 21). I then looked upon the Romano-British
pottery, of which the fragments might be " wasters," as the
objective of the works, and Mr. I. Chalkley Gould alluded to this
opinion in his chapter on the Red-hills in the Victoria History.

If this hypothesis were the true one, we ought to find remains
of kilns near the Red-hills. Mr. Reader hints " these would
probably be seen as circular depressions, being shallow pits with

FIG 5.— SUGGESTION AS TO THE USE OF THE " T-PI'ECES.'

a neck or opening for the furnace." I am not aware that
anything of the kind has yet been noticed.

But although no one who has worked at them can reasonably
doubt that the Red-hills indicate pottery-making, later thought
over the problem has suggested a further supposition, which
appears to be well worthy of consideration, inasmuch as it
accounts fairly well for all the known facts.

The paucity of the remains of the harder pottery hardly
seems to accord with the quantity of " wasters " which we
should expect to find in such extensive manufactories. Is it
possible that these are simply portions of broken domestic
utensils used by the workers, and that the targe, coarse vessels were
really the object of the pottery-making ? Such rough pots or pans

l80 WITH REMARKS UPON THE OBJECTS FOUND.

would be made in a very primitive manner. In Janvier's
Practical Kcvamics it is stated that in England a kiln is •• generally
a low, vaulted chamber, with a cone-shaped stack. In very
rough pottery baking there is no regular kiln at all, the pots
themselves being piled up on a sort of floor, and arranged to let
the flames play over and through them." It is possible that
rude kilns might have been made by piling up the pans
surrounded by faggots, and covering in the whole with clay, in
the fashion of charcoal-burning, but with a kind of flue at top
to allow of the requisite high temperature being attained. To
prevent the pots collapsing it is suggested that the T-pieces, the
upright with the foot (Fig. 2, E), and the double prong (Fig. 4)
were joined with a lump of clay in the middle, as shown in Fig.
5. We took this idea from the explanations of our old friend
the potter at Waltham Abbey (see above), who was well
acquainted with the primitive methods employed in his young
days ; but this suggestion is a purely tenative one, and may De
confuted by the results of further explorations. When the
firing was finished, the demolishment of these primitive kilns
would set free great quantities of more or less perfectly
burnt " red-earth."

If these vessels were really the objective of the pottery-
making, to what use were the pots or pans — some of them
nearly two feet in diameter — put by the workers at the Red-hills ?

One recalls the late Rev. J. C. Atkinson's paper, " Some
further notes on the Salting Mounds of Essex," 4 in which he
suggests that the Red-hills were ancient Salinas or salt-pans. He
gives a very considerable amount of indirect evidence in favour
of this supposition, and the paper is well worthy of careful
study in connection with the problem. Our President, Mr.
Miller Christy, F.L.S., in his paper on " The History of Salt-
making in Essex," read before the Club on April 7th, 1906, but
not yet published, pointed out how numerous were these " salt-
cotes " on the shores of our Essex estuaries and inlets in the time
of the Domesday Survey. 5 The sites of the salt-pans plotted on
the map exhibited by Mr. Christy were roughly coincident with
many of the existing Red-hills, and the seeker for a raison d'etre

4 A rchaolozical Journal, Vol. xxxvii. (1880), p. 196.

5 See also Mr. Horace Round's Essay on the Survey in the Victoria History. He says
that '"the distribution of the salt-pans was in Essex extremely local, being virtually
restricted to the Hundreds of Tendring, Winstree, and sThurstable in the N,E. of the
•county."

EXPLORATION OF SOME " RED-HILLS IN ESSEX. l8l

of the latter is naturally tempted to suspect some affinity between
the two. In this connection the description of the Scottish
antiquary, Mr. George Neilson, in his Annals of the Sohmy, of the
ancient methods of manufacture at the saliiud is informing, and
no apology is necessary for quoting it : —

" In its salt-works the Sol way possessed an industry of great importance and
high antiquity. At intervals all along both its Scottish and English shores there
were salines or salt-works. These were all situated at places where a loose and
porous clayey sand, called • sleech,' formed natural salt beds presenting a surface
capable of retaining a very heavy solution of salt after being covered by
the tide. The heat of the summer sun disclosed the salty particles, glittering
on the sleech like hoar frost. From time to time in due season the * salters,' as
the makers of salt were called, first collected the surface sleech on the salt bed
by a kind of sledge-drag or scraper, called a ' hap,' drawn by a horse, carted it
to the merse or grassy beach, and laid it in heaps beside the place where, after
some time, it was to be filtered. Neither the apparatus nor process of filtration
was complex. A hole dug in the merse formed a ' kinch ' or pit ; its bottom
and sides were puddled with clay to make it water-tight : on the bottom, above
the clay, peats were laid ; the peats in turn were covered with a layer of sods,
sleech was put on the sods, till the kinch was nearly filled to the brim, and finally
as much salt-water was added as the kinch would hold. Filtering through the
sleech and the sods the brine at length, when strong enough to float an egg, was
allowed to escape by a tube or spout into a wooden reservoir, out of which it was
lifted and carried in pails to the salt pans. These were broad, shallow, metal
pans, beneath which great fires of peat were lit. After about six hours' boiling
the process was complete ; the liquid of the brine was wholly evaporated, and
the pans full of the finished article. The name of Saltcotes was given to the
little cluster of buildings which contained the pans, the ' girnels ' or stores in
which the salt was kept, and the dwellings of the salters. Such was the system
pursued on the Solway in the end of last (the eighteenth) century, and there is
small reason to doubt that substantially the same primitive and laborious mode of
manufacture prevailed from early times." Our author noted "holes in the
grassy foreshore, from two to three feet deep, a dozen or thereby wide, and six
or eight across; the bottom is black, and either dry or half-filled with dark and
stagnant water. These are the ' lunches ' or pits once used in the salt manufac-
ture. . . . No unfit memorial of a dead industry."

With, perhaps, a few modifications rendered necessary by
peculiarities of the Essex estuarine shores, the above description
of the Solway salters' methods of work might be taken to body
forth the primitive industrial scenes at our local salinoc.

On the supposition that we have in the Red-hills the
remains of salt-works dating from very early times, when
metal vessels were not available, it is no very wild speculation
to suggest that the large, coarse vessels, the fragments of which
are so numerous, were the pans in which the brine was boiled
down to the crystallising point in the old manufacture of salt.

182 WITH REMARKS UPON THE OBJECTS FOUND.

There would be abundant economic reasons for making the
pans on the spot out of the clay around. The pans, being very
rude and fragile, would be frequently broken, and would thus
provide the store of fragments which puzzle us to-day.
The mode of baking the pans and the great fires that would be
necessary in evaporating the brine would be a sufficient source
of the vast quantities of burnt debris accumulated during the
long years of the industry. Considerable quantities of salt
must have been required in early days for curing fish and meat,
and later, perhaps, in the making of the great ewe-milk cheeses,
for which Essex was long so famed ; while, as the output of
these primitive salince could not have been great, a considerable
number of them would be called for to satisfy the country-side,
and possibly every settlement had its own salt-pans. 6

In estimating the period of these remains some latitude must
be allowed. As Mr. Stopes remarks, " the character of the
associated pottery, the absence of any trace of metal, and the
downward extension of the calcined masses to the London Clay
argue a high antiquity, higher than that of the surrounding
alluvium, four or five feet in depth, perhaps higher than the
change in the course of the river to which I have referred
already." The hill at Burnham is now a considerable distance
(about ij miles) from the river Crouch, whilst the one at
Bower Hall, East Mersea, has been cut through by the
Pyefleet, and must consequently have been accumulated
previous to the erosion of the present channel. The absence
also of any allusion in old authors and of local traditions
respecting the red-hills favours the throwing their origin
back to a remote age. Mr. Frank W. Reader has kindly
examined the hard pottery obtained during our explorations, and
reports thus : —

" The ppttery specimens from the Red-hills at Burnham and Bower Hall
Farm, E. Mersea, are clearly fragments such as are commonly found on
Romano-British sites, and including two pieces of Red Samian of a rather .soft
quality. 7

6 It mav be conjectured that the appearance of glaze on the two pieces of rough pot
from the "Grassy Marsh " Red hill at E. Mersea (ante p. 176) was caused by the fusion
of salt on the ware by intense heat.

7 The two pieces of Samian came from the hill af Burnham, and as before hinted (ante,
p. 173) were probably accidental and may have come from the surface. At any rate, we
have net found any Samian elsewhere.

EXPLORATION OF SOME " RED-HILLS " IN ESSEX. 183

" One of the two pieces from Peldon appears to belong to the class of ware
known as late-Celtic. s

"As there was an overlapping of the late-Celtic and Roman period, and
the forms of the fictile vessels of both these sources of culture appear to have
been made simultaneously, it is common to find the two in association. The
occurrence of late- Celtic types, therefore, does not necessarily indicate an
earlier period. I have already drawn attention to this elsewhere, but it is a point
that cannot be too strongly insisted upon. There is no reason why some
Red-hills should not have originated in pre-Roman times, but this can only be
determined by extended enquiry ; such a conclusion cannot be drawn from
isolated specimens. The weight of evidence so far points to their origin in
Romano-British times."

As before stated, I simply put forward the above supposi-
tions in a tentative way to suggest further enquiry, which the
newly-appointed Committee of the Essex Archaeological Society
and the Club will doubtless give to the matter, to confirm,
extend, or possibly confute, the conclusions here set forth. There
are numerous very interesting questions connected with geology,
topography, and even the biology of our coast suggested by the
problems of the Red-hills. The density and salinity of the
estuarine waters as compared with the open sea is one of them,
and the age of the alluvium and the older sea-walls, are others.
It is a large and very interesting subject, and one worker
can do very little, but my brothers and I have had much
satisfaction in making up the above sheets, and recalling the
many pleasant days spent on the breezy Essex marshes with the
Red-hills and the curlews.

[The Club is indebted to Mr. H. A. Cole, for the drawings accompanying this paper. It
should be stated that the drawings on pp. 175 and 176 are one-half the natural size of the
objects.]

8 These pieces came from Mr. Stopes, and are presumably the fragments alluded to in
his paper, E.N. I., page 99.

i8 4

STRAW-PLAITING— A LOST ESSEX INDUSTRY.

By I. CHALKLEY GOULD, F.S.A.. Vice-President, E.F.C.
{Read October 2%th, 1 905.]

AT the outset of my remarks I must state that Mr. Miller
Christy, our President, when writing on " Straw-Plait,
ing " for the Victoria History, derived certain information from
me, in return for which he kindly gave me details relating to the
early statistics of the plait trade in Essex, which I have used in
this paper ; and I must own my indebtedness to Mr. Aylott, of
Hitchin, for much information as to the past and present trade
in his district.

References exist to the plait trade in Bedfordshire at earlier
dates, but so far as Essex is concerned it is not till the end of
the 18th century that any record appears. Then the Marquis
and Marchioness of Buckingham, living in that grand old Essex
House, Gosfield Place — endeavouring something for the welfare
of their cottage neighbours — introduced straw-plaiting to the
villagers of Gosfield.

The coarse appearance of the early efforts of the Gosfield
women hindered the sale, but their noble patrons encouraged the
workers by wearing the results of their labour, and very soon fine
work was produced ; by 1806 the sales from Gosfield amounted
to £1,700 in the year, and Arthur Young, writing in 1807, was
able to refer to the village having received the greatest of
temporal blessings by the trade. 1

Other Essex villagers soon adopted straw-plaiting as a
constant employment for the women and an occasional occupation
for men and boys. The Colne Valley villages and the neighbour-
hood of Bocking were homes of the trade, but, curiously enough,
it seems to have been confined to somewhat narrow limits
instead of spreading over the country.

In the palmy days of the industry women produced three-
score yards of plait in a week, selling at 7s. per score, but this
halcyon condition did not last, for the farmer, instead of almost
giving the straw away, made a business of selling it. Then too,
as more villages took up plaiting, commercial competition
increased and the earnings of the plaiters dropped, till in
1840 from 3d. to iod. a score was all that was realized, the price

1 General View of Agriculture (1807).

STRAW-PLAITING— A LOST ESSEX INDUSTRY

185

varying according to quality and the number of strands in a
plait.

FIG. I. — BONK "ENGINES" EOR SPLITTING STRAW.

White's History, Gazetteer and Directory of Essex (1863) states
that the manufacture " gives employment to many women and

l86 STRAW-PLAITING — A LOST ESSEX INDUSTRY.

children in the north-western parts of the county," and Mr.
Christy's statistics show that so late as 1871 there were many
people in Essex engaged in the trade, either as plaiters, dealers,
or shop-keepers, and it lingered on here and there for nearly
twenty more years. 2 Now the trade is absolutely dead in our
county, and in the towns and villages of North Herts, where
it lingers, id. per score is all that the dealers give the plaiters,
who rarely earn more than 6d. a week, except for specially
fine work such as the villagers of Offley turn out, thereby
realizing a rather larger payment. 3

Passing from statistics of the trade to the processes by which
straw became a fit material for hats and bonnets, we have first
to picture the crop on the farm. Farmers who laid themselves
out for the trade grew wheat producing a fine straw suitable for
plaiting, and it was reaped by hand with care to avoid bruising
the straws. The breaking action of the reaping machine is fatal
to stems intended for plaiting. 4 In the earliest days of plaiting
the farmers (as I have said) charged a nominal price for the
straw, having first cut off the heads of corn, relying on the wheat
to repay them, as well it might in the days of ,£5 a quarter.
But as the demand grew, the farmer found it better to prepare
and cut the straw into lengths himself. Whether at the farm or
in the cottage, the first process was, by rake and hand, to remove
the flags or leaf growths from the sheaf of straw. The rake
shown is the wreck of one long used in the North of Essex. The
straw, being thus cleaned of superfluous growth, was next cut
into lengths between the joints, the latter being cast aside.
Often, however, we note that the joint is on some of the straws,
where it certainly ought not to be.

The straw being thus cut into lengths, usually a